Rhodri Mawr (the Great) and Medieval Wales between 844 and 878

Rhodri ap Merfyn was the son of Merfyn Frych, who was the King of Gwynedd until his death in 844 and his wife, Queen of Powys. Probably born around 820, not much can be said about his childhood and even if he had siblings it is unknown. 

What most sources agree is that when he was twenty four years old, if considering correct he was born in 820, Rhodri succeded his father as King of Gwynedd. Years later, with the death of his mother's brother, he'd also inherit the kingdom of Powys and, from his wife's brother, Seisyllwg as well.

Sometimes considered as King of Wales, despite the concept of nationalism and a whole unified kingdom be more modern, truth is that 80% of Wales Rhodri managed to keep under his rule, considering that ever since Roman invasion Wales was nothing but divided regions whose chiefs claimed ascendancy of Celtic tribes. 

However, just as his descendants afterwards, Rhodri would too be a figure of resistance before the English. Yet, naturally, with some differences. England was not unified as we know after the Norman invasions and, like Wales, was filled with regions that had different rulers (Mercia, Northumbria and Wessex, for example), though the Anglo-Saxons from Wessex, under the command of Alfred the Great, desired to unite Wessex and Mercia. Considering these pieces of a future whole kingdom, one must take in consideration how social actors were build these days: if every man is the product of a society, how Rhodri was his? 

A man of wars, he was not a knight errant, neither was the son to have a life in Church. Defending his realm against the Vikings, in a battle where he killed their leader, Rhodri's deeds were sang in songs and written in poetries, constituting what in Middle Ages the ideals of knighthood. 

"Rhodri's fame sprang from his success as a warrior. That success was noted by The Ulster Chronicle and by Sedulius Scottus, an Irish scholar at the court of the Emperor Charles the Bald at Liege. It was his victory over the Vikings in 856 which brought him international acclaim. Wales was less richly provided with fertile land and with the navigable rivers that attracted the Vikings, and the Welsh kings had considerable success in resisting them. Anglesey bore the brunt of the attacks, and it was there in 856 that Rhodri won his great victory over Horn, the leader of the Danes, much to the delight of the Irish and the Franks."

Best remembered for his victories in battlefield, else there is nothing further about this interesting character. Certainly, it is curious to notice that some sources claim Rhodri to be the first Prince of Wales, whilst others call him 'the first King of all Wales'. Regardless of this, the impression he left on contemporaries and his counterparts are timeless, since Rhodri became the one king to be looked upon. 

His death is described as both tragic and somewhat "legendary". This latter is explained by the fact Rhodri the Great faced Alfred the Great in battle field, a "clash of titans" indeed. This fight occurred because of the ambitions of Alfred in expanding his dominions and that included to subdue Wales, something we see in other periods of Wales's History. Here's how this battle is described:

"In 877 the two "Greats", Rhodri and Alfred clashed, and the Welsh leader and his son Gwriad were killed. In the vaccum following Rhodri's death, Welsh kings, perhaps fearing the might of the Danes more than the threat of Alfred, and fearful of the power of Rhodri's sons, submitted to the overlordship of Wessex."

With the death of Rhodri, Wales was divided among Rhodri's son and it would not be united until further centuries. Likewise other Welsh leaders previous discussed, social imagination turned Rhodri as the hero people would always look up to when, through the whole Middle Ages, Welsh attempted to resist England's tyrannies. 

Sources:

http://homepages.rpi.edu/~holmes/Hobbies/Genealogy2/ps06/ps06_185.htm

http://www.snowdoniaheritage.info/en/person/116/rhodri-mawr/

http://www.robertsewell.ca/deheubarth.html

http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/society/royalty_rhodrithegreat.shtml

http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=monkeys&id=I14780

http://www.castlewales.com/rhodri.html

http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/WelshMonarchsandPrinces/RhodriMawr.aspx

http://www.britainexpress.com/wales/history/rhodri.htm

Llewellyn ap Gruffydd: The Last Prince of Wales

Ever since Edward I, King of England, subdued Wales to his kingdom, the title of 'Prince of Wales' started to be associated to every heir of England's crown. However, it has not always been like this: Wales was once an independent country which, like Scotland, was constantly in conflict against England's interests. Looking specifically into the reign of Llewellyn ap Gruffydd, who is regarded as the last Welsh to be entitled as the natural Prince of Wales, we will see these conflicts were still there.

With few sources found, it's difficult to write about some Princes of Wales's precisely lives and reigns, but due to the days they lived, it's completely understandable why most sources did not survive until our recent days. However, based on those we were able to find, we can assume that these Welsh rulers did not have an easy life... And that most English's monarchs did not help them with it either. It was the case of Llewellyn ap Gruffydd, Prince of Wales.

He was the grandson of Llewelyn the Great, through his illegitimate (and oldest) son Gruffydd, and probably was born around the year of 1223. Llewellyn ap Gruffydd was a younger brother to Owain and an older brother to Dafydd. Before his rise to the power, a few circumstances must be noticed, considering there is almost nothing describing the last Prince of Wales's childhood.

One of them regards his own grandfather, who was the ruler of Wales and, at his deathbed, he had two sons who could as well inherit his crown, since both had rights in claiming it, considering that in Medieval Wales, there were no distinctions in these matters regarding the legitimacy of the Welsh heir. But Llewelyn ap Iorweth made Dafydd the one to succeed him wit his death; and Dafydd was his legitimate son with his wife, Joanna Plantagenet, this one being King John of England's illegitimate daughter.

That being said, another is about Gruffydd, who was excluded from the succession act, and was soon sent to England with his wife and children by his half-brother, to stay under custody of King Henry III, who recognized Dafydd as Prince of Gwynedd. With the death of his father, Llewellyn would join forces to his uncle when a war was declared against Henry III, as seen below:

"A few years later, Llewellyn's father died attempting to escape from the Tower of London, and Dafydd, perhaps with a pang of conscience about his brother's death, perhaps frustrated that the King wouldn't give him his due title, declared war on Henry. In the bloody fighting that followed, Llewellyn supported his uncle against the forces of England, and was thus in a commanding position to take control when his uncle Dafydd died without issue in 1246.

The following year, Llewellyn and Owain, now free and returned to Wales, were forced to settle terms with King Henry. It was not a satisfactory arrangement. The real of Gwynedd was split in two, with the King taking the Eastern half, and the two brothers splitting the Western half between them. Shortly thereafter, their younger brother Dafydd came of age and paid homage to King Henry. Henry generously offered Dafydd some land in Gwynedd. Not from the King's half  of course, but from the already severely shrunk holdings of his two older brothers. Llewellyn was not impressed, and took up arms against both Owain and Dafydd, eventually capturing both of them and claiming all of the family's remaining lands for himself."

And how did he become a figure of extreme importance in matters of Welsh resistance towards England? What can be perceptible is how these social actors worked, constructed by each context and risen to the point where social imagination draws them, after their lives, to an image that represents that society, thus, making not only Llewellyn ap Gruffydd but, as seen in another article, Owain Glyndwr as national heroes for Wales, regarding mutual antipathies between the Welsh and the English.

Thus, these actions that turned Llewellyn as Prince of Wales when he was not recognized as such after his uncle's death, regards the struggle he attempts to keep his country independent from England. Nowadays, he is compared to Scottish William Wallace for such deeds.

After defeating opposition from his brothers, since it was Llewellyn's desire in reuniting Wales, "Llywelyn set about reasserting the authority of Gwynedd and thereafter extending it into a supremacy over much of the rest of Wales. In 1267 his position as overlord was recognized by Henry III in the Treaty of Montgomery when the English king accepted Llywelyn's homage as prince of Wales."

However, with the death of Henry III, worse was to come in the figure of the new king, Edward I. After all:

"Relations deteriorated as Llewellyn sought to test the new king and refused to pay homage or make the money payments due under the Treaty of Montgomery. It was a costly mistake as Edward soon showed he was not to be trifled with. Edward took a huge army into Wales, received subservience from the lesser princes, and starved Llewellyn into submission. In 1277, Llewelyn was forced to submit to the King and was stripped of his hard won overlordship."

Although there was a brief truce, when Llewellyn married Edward I's cousin, Eleanor, who was the daughter of the infamous Simon de Montfort, other battles happened to be fought between the English and the Welsh. But these culminated on the deaths of both Llewellyn and Dafydd, leaving Wales in the hands of Edward I, also known as 'Longshanks'. 

What can be attested of Llewellyn's death is that:

"When Llewellyn lay dying, he asked for a priest, and it was only when he spoke to one that his identity was realised. As befitted a traitor to the crown, his head was hewn from his shoulders, shown to the troops, and eventually hang above the gates of the Tower of London, the place where his father had died, for 15 years as a warning to others.

The annex of this story is short. With the death of their leader, and in the face of overwhealming odds, the Welsh lost heart. Dafydd struggled on for a few short months, before he too was captured and executed. Gwynedd, Llewellyn's ancestral home, was stripped of all royal insignia, relics and regalia, and the seals of Llewellyn's family melted down and made into a chalice. Edward's conquest of Wales was complete."

Regardless if the title of "Last Prince of Wales" is questioned, it is undoubted the importance Llewellyn ap Gruffydd had in his days. For each slavered man, one will bow to defy the system; which means that, whenever we come to face to tyranny, there'll also be resistance. That is one of the reasons why Welsh royals are just as interesting as any other European's too.

Sources:

http://www.castlewales.com/llywel2.html

http://blog.prehistoricshamanism.com/362/celebrating-llewelyn-ap-gruffydd-the-last-native-prince-of-wales/

http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/welsh-history-month-memorial-llywelyn-7822812

http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/society/royalty_llywelyn_ap_gruffydd.shtml

http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/the-prince-of-wales/titles-and-heraldry/previous-princes-of-wales

http://www.princesofgwynedd.com/characters-llewelyn-ap-gruffydd.html

http://www.britainexpress.com/wales/history/llewelyn-last.htm

http://www.celticradio.net/php/news.php?item=1262

Rhys ap Thomas: The Welshman Who Became The Tudor 'Kingmaker'

This article intends to enlighten the life of one of the greatest Welsh men who, despite lacking royal blood, is not less important than other royals born in Wales before him. Born in a family known for their loyalty towards the House of Lancaster, due to the benefits granted by King Henry IV of England in days where Owain Glyndwr (see previous article) rebelled against his rule, to all families who supported him instead, this third son of a landowner came to be known as 'Tudor Kingmaker' due to the important role he culminated into the rise of a dynasty and the fall of another.

Born in 1449, in Carmarthenshire, Wales, the youngest son of Thomas Hynaf ap Gruffudd and Elisabeth (sometimes spelled Elsbeth) Griffith, few is known about this prominent young man, except that it was not expected he'd inherit the lands of Dinefwr from his father anytime soon. What can be inferred is that, before the death of his father and brothers, he spent a few years in exile at Burgundy when Edward, Duke of York, became King Edward IV, thus usurping Henry VI, whose house of Lancaster Rhys's family was loyal to. As said here:

"During this period of dynastic turmoil Rhys's grandfather Gruffydd ap Nicholas was killed at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross in 1461, and for their support of the defeated Lancastrians his sons forfeited the family's extensive lands  in the Tywi valley. (But not before two of them, Thomas and Owain, had held Carreg Cennen Castle against a Yorkist onslaught of 200 men in 1462, only surrending after a siege. To ensure no such resistance occurred again Carreg Cennen's fortifications were destroyed afterwards. It has never been occupied since). 

Henry VI briefly regained his throne in 1470 but promptly lost it again in 1471 when he, along with his son and heir to the throne, were killed in his last battle, and Edward IV was now secure on the throne, or as secure as it was possible to be during this period of utter chaos. When Rhys ap Thomas returned to Wales, probably early in 1470s, his family was still eclipsed during Edward IV's restored regime."

After four or five years spent at the court of Philippe, the Good, duke of Burgundy, what we can possible discuss of the time Rhys spent back to Wales is that he not only inherited his father's lands with his death (and the death of his older brothers), but was also married to a woman named Eva, daughter of Henri ap Gwilym of Cwrt Henri, although it's possible that his legitimate son Gruffydd was born from his second wife, Jane, daughter of Thomas Mathew of Radyr. It's also said that he had several mistresses and, with them, quite some illegitimate children who later would be married into great houses of South Wales.

Nevertheless, in 1483, when the duke of Gloucester, Richard, becomes King Richard III, right after he takes the throne from his nephew, Edward, upon the death of his brother, King Edward IV, there's a rebellion leaded by the Duke of Buckingham. 

"In 1483 Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham and lord of Brecon, rose up in rebellion against the newly enthroned Yorkist Richard III but Rhys declined to join in on the side of Stafford, wisely as it turns out, as the rebellion was crushed. Richard III made an annuity of 40 marks to Rhys in order to buy his support, but this may not have prevented him from communicating with Henry Tudor, who was in exile in Brittany, perhaps even promising to support Henry's invasion in 1485. His biography states that Richard III demanded the surrender of Rhys's only legitimate son, Gruffudd, as a guarantee of his loyalty. The Life  also claims that Rhys welcomed Henry Tudor on arrival in Pembrokeshire on 7 August 1485, but he is likely to have been cautious initially about declaring for the insurgents, and there was uncertainty about his attitude while he shadowed Henry's advance through mid-Wales."

The view that presents Rhys as cautious towards Henry Tudor can be argued by his loyalty before the Lancastrians, though it is understandable his attitude since it would not be wise to openly defy Richard III in the wrong time, especially after vowing loyalty to the Yorkist King. About that, there is a legend that says that:

"The oath he was supposed to have made to Richard was, according to a legend which has found its way down the ages: "Whoever ill-affected to the state, shall dare to land in those parts of Wales where I have any employment under your majesty, must resolve with himself to make his entrance and irruption over my belly." The story is told that after Henry Tudor's return to Britain (at Dale, Pembrokeshire, in 1485), Rhys eased his conscience by hiding under Mullock Bridge, as Henry marched over, thus absolving himself of his oath to Richard."

Whatever it was the nature of this legend, whether it was true or not, it is unquestionable that they eventually met when Tudor landed in Wales in August, the year being of 1485.

"Whatever his motives, the fact that Rhys made a major contribution to Henry's victory at Bosworth in 1485 is undisputed. Rhys may well have entertained Henry at Carew Castle before they split up on their way north, recruiting men along the way. When they met up again at Welshpool, Rhys had a large army of levied Welshmen with him. Many of there were Rhys' men for he had raised 500 trained cavalry to support the young Tudor - stout hearted men from the tenant farms of the Carew estates in South Pembrokeshire and all expert horsemen".

When the Lancastrian army marched to Bosworth field on the 22nd day of August that year to meet the Yorkist one, this latter, leaded by Richard III, was outnumbered. A doubt that remained initially unanswered was: which side would fight for the Stanley brothers, who were know for changing sides?

Nevertheless, the battle was successful, having some rumours pointing out that it was Rhys who took away Richard III's life, giving, thus, the victory to Henry Tudor, making him now King Henry VII. Soon afterwards, as a gift for his loyalty, Rhys ap Thomas was "appointed for life the king's lieutenant and steward of Brecon, steward of Builth and chamberlain of south Wales, all highly lucrative positions...", becoming the man Henry VII most trusted and after him, fighting with his son, Henry VIII, in France, in 1513.

During the early years of Henry VII's reign as King of England, Rhys "helped suppress the Brecon rising of 1486, Simnel's rebellion in 1487, the Cornish rising of 1497, and Perkin Warbeck's rebellion of October 1497. He also accompanied Henry VII on his French expedition in October." Rhys's son, Gruffudd, was placed into the same household of Henry's Prince of Wales, Arthur, and both young men were said to be closest friends, having both as well predeceased their fathers. 

Rhys ap Thomas had, unlike his grandson, who was beheaded for treason against King Henry VIII, a pleasant life, dying in 1525. Sometimes compared to Richard Neville, a generation before, it is fair to say to that, were not his support, no Tudor dynasty would have come to be established in England. He did performed a great part by placing that Welshman on the English's throne and helped him keeping it against all odds, being fairly rewarded for it. Unfortunately, however, his name slipped away from History next to Henry VII and today, much of what it's acknowledged of Wales and Tudor's History is through famous characters as Henry VIII or Elizabeth I. 

Indeed, Wales has produced many characters that, without them, History itself would be different were it not for each part they played in their moments. Rhys ap Thomas, until the end of days, was the most powerful man of that Welsh generation, leaving with good justice his mark in History.

Sources:

http://worcestercathedrallibrary.blogspot.com.br/2012/12/griffith-ap-rhys-important-welsh-knight.html

http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/descendant-knight-who-slew-richard-10013468

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhys_ap_Thomas

http://www.casgliadywerin.cymru/items/3317

http://www.beekmanbooks.com/biography-autobiography/sir-rhys-ap-thomas/

http://www.carmarthenjournal.co.uk/King-s-killer-big-draw-Carmarthen/story-18199116-detail/story.html

http://www.historytoday.com/robin-evans/battle-bosworth-field-welsh-victory

http://www.pembrokeshirecoast.org.uk/?PID=305

http://www.castlewales.com/rhysap.html

http://www.llandeilo.org/rhys_ap_thomas.php

http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=82786197

Owain Glyndwr, Prince of Wales: A Hero Personification or A Social Mark of Resistance?

This month of December, we will be discussing the royals of Wales who made History in their country. Some will be more known to public eyes then others, but their importance in Welsh's History is unquestionable. For a start, it was decided to write about Owain Glyndwr, Richard II of England's supporter and said to have been the last Prince of Wales, a noble Welshman who rebelled against Henry IV and gave this English king much headache. As it happens to most historical characters, popular views often turn them into either villains or heroes, forgetting they were human beings and ignoring their flaws, most of the times. 

What kind of man was Owain Glyndwr? Was he a product of his time, a man of resistance or... was he the last man standing against English's dominions? On this article, we intend to explore the Prince of Wales's deeds as well as trying to explain the causes of his popularity and how was this latter cemented and remained untouched for the next centuries.

Owain Glyndwr (English: Owen of the Glen of Dee Water) was born in the year of 1354, the heir of Gruffydd Fychan ap Madog ap Gruffydd Fychan. Almost nothing could be found about his earlier years and the name of his mother or even if he had siblings were not clear. What can be said before the main events that would turn Owain a remarkable character is that, due to his good ascendance as he claimed to descend from the princes of Wales from both sides of his family, he went to London where he spent some time studying. Afterwards, he went to the court of King Richard II, where he acted as courtier. As said here:

"At the age of 21 he had probably served at the Inns of Court in London where he would have acquired a necessary background in law. He also began a military career with service at Berwick-on-Tweed in 1384, and he joined Richard II's expedition to Scotland in 1385. In 1387 he became a retainer of the earl of Arundel and took part in the major naval victory at Cadzand, off Flanders."

In matters of war, especially against Scotland, he is said to have gone  "(...) on to serve the English Crown as a soldier against the Scots, and wearing a scarlet flamingo feather as his crest he is said to have bore down on the Scotsmen before him with only the butt of his broken lance", which is already enough to contest his military skills he acquired, being knighted by Richard II soon afterwards.

Two years before he joined Richard II's battle against Scotland, he was married to the daughter of Sir David Hamner, said  to have been a very important man who acted on behalf of the king's justice as lawyer and who was said to have worked as well for Edward III previously. With Lady Margaret, he had six children and lived a peacefully life for a while.

Around 1390, Richard II was usurped by his cousin, Henry Bolinbroke and the policies towards Wales changed. For a start, extremely heavy taxes from Henry IV started raising an anti English's feeling, which was not seen so strongly defended since Edward I's troubles with Wales. The sparks with the rebellion came when:

"The situation ignited when an influential member of King Henry's Council- Reginald Grey, Lord of Ruthin- seized a disputed tract of land bordering on Glyndwr's estates. Glyndwr sought legal redress, but Parliament rebuffed him, calling him a 'a bare footed Welshman'. 

At the same time, the King entrusted Grey to deliver a summons for Glyndwr to join Henry in preparing a military campaign into Scotland. Grey either did not deliver the message or withheld it until it was too late to respond. When Glyndwr failed to answer the King, Henry labelled him a traitor. On 16th September, 1400, Glyndwr met with a small group of supporters at his home in Glyndyfrdwy, between Corwen and Llangollen. (...)"

In this excerpt below, here is how this rebellion can be summarized to: 

"The immediate spark for revolt seems to have been the King's unwillingness to mediate fairly in a dispute between Owain and his neighbour, Reginald Grey of Ruthin, a lordship of the Marches. But the following years saw battles and sieges at Conwy, Harlech and Aberystwyth with Glyndwr raising a parliament and crowning himself King of a free Wales at Machynlleth in 1404"

From a mere nobleman to the last Prince of Wales, Owain Glyndwr soon became a figure created by his counterparts and much of his contemporaries that represented independence and freedom before the tyranny of the English since Edward I subdued them to his command. When Prince Henry, commonly nicknamed as Prince Hal, became King Henry V upon his father's death, suggested Owain to give amnesty in turn of surrender, twice he refused and still managed to die in obscure. September 16th then, even nowadays, is the day where Owain Glyndwr is celebrated in Wales.

Sociologically speaking, what Owain represented in those medieval days, and still represents even in 21st century, was the common cause he fought for. A cause that managed to unite North and South Wales to one. Freedom and independence from tyrannic rulers, concepts that may seem modern, indeed, but fit to understand what has leaded one man, from upper classes, to be so popular, becoming a Welsh icon that, unfortunately, by now most are unaware, although even in recent days his figure is still studied and contemplated by historians and medievalists in general. In other sources, you will find Owain Glyndwr is known as "the Welsh William Wallace". Enjoying significance power he achieved with this great rebellion, Owain managed to build churches and chose representatives of Christian churches, wrote letters to Charles VI of France in seek of support as well as an attempt to reach support from Rome. Although he was, indeed, a man of his time, it cannot be argued he was as well a product of his society, by finally doing what others lacked courage in doing so, sticking to his ideals and fighting until he could for what he believed, even if he did not succeed it,

Nevertheless, if his cause failed within the years, as the man and ruler he was, he did not. Dead in 1415 in obscurity, Owain Glyndwr may have died without seeing Wales independent and free from the English hands, but would never be forgotten by its people. Here is a small poetry written to honour the person he was:

"His grave is beside no church, neither under the shadow of any ancient yew. It is in a spot safer and more sacred still. Rain does not fall on it, hail nor sleet chill nor sere sod above it. It is forever green with the green of eternal spring. Sunny the light on it; close and warm and dear it lies, sheltered from all storms, from all cold or grey oblivion. Time shall not touch it; decay shall not dishonour it; for that grave is in the heart of every true Cymro. There, for ever, from generation unto generation, grey Owen's heart lies dreaming on, dreaming on, safe for ever and for ever." 

Sources: http://www.britishheritage.com/owain-glyndwrs-fight-for-wales/

http://www.eryri-npa.gov.uk/a-sense-of-place/history-of-snowdonia/the-princes-of-snowdonia/owain-glyndwr-c.1354-1416

http://cadw.gov.wales/daysout/waleshistorymap/owainglyndwr/?lang=en

http://www.corwen.org/owain_glyndwr.html

http://yba.llgc.org.uk/en/s-OWAI-GLY-1354.html

http://www.thebellatcaerleon.co.uk/info/glyndwr.htm

http://history.powys.org.uk/history/mach/owain3.html

http://bdaugherty.tripod.com/cymru/owain.html

http://www.boydellandbrewer.com/store/viewItem.asp?idProduct=14583

http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofWales/Owen-Glendower-Owain-Glyndwr/

http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2015/nov/14/on-the-owain-glyndwr-trail-wales-uk

Elizabeth Richeza: The Interesting Life of The Medieval Queen of Bohemia and Poland

Although it is commonly accepted that in Middle Ages women in general did not have an easy life, it is as well agreed that few of them managed to bear a certain degree of independence from its standards, considering how able were they in holding the exercise of organizing their own life style. Elizabeth Richeza perhaps was neither an exception to the rule but at the same time she was not the rule herself. During the context of the 13th and 14th centuries, as far as it can be attested, few of her gender who shared her position could have had long tragedies throughout her lives as this Queen did.

And the first of them came in her tender age. Elizabeth was born Eliska Rejcka (Spelled Eliška Rejčka in Czech and Ryksa Elżbieta in Polish) on the first day of September, the year being 1286. Her parents were the King of Poland, PrzemysI the Second, and his wife, Richesa of Sweden, who died giving her birth. Elizabeth was their only surviving child and by the time her father was murdered, she was a valuable heiress to this kingdom. Soon afterwards another one followed:

"As a child she was engaged to the young Otto, son of the Margrave of Brandenburg and relative of her stepmother Margaret of Brandenburg. However, the boy soon after."

Despite the lack of information we have about her between the age of nine until her teenage days, what can we say is that at the age of fourteen, she became Queen of Bohemia and Poland by marrying the widowed King Wencelaus II. However, such a marriage had nothing but political meanings since:

"His first wife Judith of Habsburg had already given him a son and three daughters. He had already subjugated Kraków in 1291, during the lifetime of Elizabeth's father. Because of her young age, the marriage was not celebrated until 26 May 1303, when she arrived in Prague and was crowned the Queen of Bohemia and Poland, adopting the name Elizabeth at the same time (as Richeza was unused and seen as strange in Bohemia)"

Of this marriage, she gave birth only to a daughter, at the age of seventeen, whom she named Agnes. And not so later she became a mother, another tragedy fell upon Elizabeth's life: she became a widow and the Queen Dowager of both lands at such an age. But, at the moment, she would govern the reign for her stepson, Wencesclaus III, who, unfortunately, was murdered. This sad situation she was into turned Elizabeth to a very valuable bride, not only due to the dowry she had but as well as her beauty and wit she displayed, though we could not find traces of personalities from the few sources used to write this article.

The duke of Austria, Rudolph of Habsburg, managed to inherit this crown and married Elizabeth, who maintained her position as Queen. As said here:

"He was chosen Bohemia's king and Elizabeth remained queen. The reign and marriage lasted only a short time - Rudolph died 4 July 1307 of dysentery after becoming ill during the siege of the fortress of a nobleman in revolt."

As a result of another widowhood she came to face, Elizabeth's inheritance only increased and now she had towns and more households to take care of. If all of this can state peace to someone who witnessed death in its worst way even to medieval days, where it was probably more natural to die through diseases (as expectations to live were very short) than being actually murdered, depending of the object and place one is researching, it cannot be affirmed for certainty. After all, her stepdaughter's husband managed to hold the crown to himself, thus turning Elizabeth as a Queen Dowager again in opposition of her first husband's daughter, also named Elizabeth, who was now Queen of Poland and Bohemia. 

Before she settled outside Prague, it is said she supported her brother by law towards the claim he disputed with Henry of Carintia, but as he was the victor of the struggle for the Bohemian crown, she was forced to flee away. However, as said in the last paragraph, it was her stepdaughter's husband, John of Luxembourg who held the crown as King John III in 1310. But by then, she was permitted to go back to her lands, where she settled with her lover, a man named Henry of Lipá, whose position was unequal compared to hers. It is contested whether they were married or not, as if she did marry him, then he would have a claim to the Bohemian throne. We can only but wonder that perhaps by avoiding marriage, she would have her peace at least after having herself involved in trouble with politics (by supporting her brother by law of the second marriage) and after having grown up surrounded by tragedies, she soon managed to settle.

However it was not without difficulties, as we can see below:

"In 1310 John of Luxembourg became the new King of Bohemia, thanks to his marriage to Elizabeth, daughter of King Wenceslaus II and his first wife. John's rule faced substantial opposition from Bohemian nobles, who decided to support Ryksa-Elizabeth. (...) The second important leader of the anti-Luxembourg faction was the powerful nobleman Jindrich of Lipá (Henry of Lipá), who was the Moravian Hetman and Governor of the Bohemian Kingdom in the abscence of the King. Soon a romantic relationship developed between Ryksa-Elizabeth and Henry of Lipá, which, for political reasons, never led to marriage. (...) In order to weaken the position of the powerful nobility, in 1315, King John deprived Henry of all his offices and imprisoned him. However, the position and popularity of the Dowager Queen was so strong in Bohemia that John, fearing a civil war, released him in April 1316."

But, finally, with some peace "they moved to Brno and spent ten happy years there (1318-1329) until his death. Some sources believe the couple may have married in 1319. After Henry's death, Elizabeth turned her attention to culture and religion, built churches and Cistercian convents (from 1323), and financed the making of illustrated hymn books. She died in Brno and was buried under the floor of her cloister church at the side of her beloved Henry".

After leading a life full of sad events, uncommon indeed though not rare amongst women in her position, what differs Elizabeth Richeza from others of her gender and position was the degree of independence and wealth she managed to secure for herself, after all, a life where in general happiness was not expected. With little information, it is sad to figure it out how women whose lives were similar like her awake little interesting in historiography. Though with this article, most of the common sense surrounding the lives of medieval women of upper classes is contested, it is not intended to make it as rule but to enlighten other countries's characters who are by so many unknown and, somewhat, bring them back to life. 

Sources: http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=123509032

http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Elizabeth_Richeza_of_Poland

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/elizabeth_richeza_of_poland

http://medieval-women.tumblr.com/post/86502093199/elizabeth-richeza-of-poland-queen-of-bohemia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Richeza_of_Poland

Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania: The Last Pagan Ruler in Medieval Europe.

Whenever History of Middle Ages is studied, most interests on this matter takes us to England or France's History during this period, especially with this latter, whose historiography is most popular and followed by many researchers and historians themselves. However, it still remains difficult the possibility of transferring the dominion of french historiography to other's. With this thought, it's questioned how the History of certain countries is less valuable than others and based on what critters one is more studied than another. Nevertheless, this article presents an attempting to leave behind the anglo-french centralization by giving light to a figure that few have heard about. His name was Algirdas and he was the Grand Duke of Lithuania in Middle Ages, though as the ruler he was his reign began on the year of 1345 and lasted until his death in 1377.

But what we are about to discuss is not his reign as whole or how he helped to unite Lithuania as one, since there were states that his father had divided between their sons until Agirdas became Grand Duke of the whole duchy he united through the deposition he had afflicted his younger brother; but rather his controversial religious views in a century that Christian Churches were already well established, Rome was very powerful and  unquestionable as its Holy sovereign that every monarch had to obey and, perhaps most important, no signs of pagans such were the Danes was there to cause the Church of Rome trouble or other Catholics in Europe. Still, Lithuania was regarded as the last pagan region to convert, even though it kept much of paganism in its culture and way of life. But in days of prosecution, where even Christian heretics were burned, how did this duke manage to deal with his own faith and make sure to turn Lithuania into a powerful duchy, some claiming its lands reached until Moscow with the rule of Agirdas? That's what we are discussing today.

Born circa in the year of 1296, probably by the the end of the month of May, he was the oldest son of Gediminas (sometimes spelled Gedymin) Grand Duke of Lithuania (though his lands were on the western side of Lithuania) and his wife, Olga Vsevolodovna of Smolensk. Whilst his father was still alive, Algirdas received Crewa (or Krèva) from him, as said here: "The Origo Regis Jagyelo records that "ducem magnum Lithuanie Gediminum" had seven sons, of whom "tercius Olgerth, pater dominis regis" to whom his father gave "Crewa"."

Few is documented of his childhood and adult affairs, but what else can be said of the last pagan ruler in Europe is about how he used paganism, like his father, to manage diplomacy to favour Lithuania. As it was said before, the youngest brother of Algirdas, Jaunutis, became the heir of his father, probably because his mother was a Polish princess. However, he did not manage well the loyalty of his older brothers and soon he was placed aside when Algirdas became the Grand Duke of Lithuania, uniting the duchy at least. To avoid any sort of rebellion, Algirdas gave some other part of Lithuania to his younger brother, but relied on Kestutis who aided him in military expeditions, expand lands in eastern sides, almost reaching Moscow, but giving Algirdas thrice failures when he attempted to break in the region.

In matters of religion, it is curious to attest that, despite how many people who surrounded him at the time were Christians, Algirdas apparently remained pagan. Below, there is a citation that explains furthermore about how the praise to their own Gods worked:

"While the Lithuanian pantheon consists of dozen of household (i.e minor) gods and goddesses, the two most important ones were Thor-like Perkunas and crafty Velnias (also Velinas). Velninas was the chthonic god of the underworld and was responsible for all mischief on earth - he was the misbehaving trickster god. Missionaries interpreted the cult of Velninas as a form of satanic worship, as Lithuanians would venerate him by sacrificing a goat."

And there's more:

"(...) According to the lore of the time, Velnias was the god responsible for the Lithuanian victory at Tannen-berg. He had extorted the secret of working iron from the god Kalvelis and had supernaturally enhanced the Lithuanians' swords. He was also the keeper of the souls of the dead prior to their final separation from the earth. (...) Perkunas was the chief god and protector of the Lithuanian state. He ruled over fire, thunder and  lightning. Soil could not be titled until he blessed it with the first rumble of thunder in the spring. (...) Perkunas was thus the protector of order in the world and was perennially at odds with rascally Velnias".

In present days, this paganism leaded to a new religion, neo paganism, known by the name of Romuva, but, back to the reign of Algirdas, what can we say about these rites and beliefs under this context? Considering how Algirdas was married to a woman of an Orthodox faith and remembering how his father, Gediminas, also married to Christian women, was reported to have welcomed Orthodox and Christian faith in Lithuan, but refusing to be baptized in the new religion. Following his father's politics, Algirdas did not do different. By promising he would convert, he never did. As the excerpt affirms that:

"Modern historians argue, that "For Gediminas and Algirdas, retention of paganism provided a useful diplomatic tool and weapon... that allowed them to use promises of conversion as a means of preserving their power and independence". According to Hermann von Wartberge and Jan Dlugosz, Algirdas remained a pagn until his death in summer 1377. Contemporary Byzantine accounts also support the Western sources: Patriarch Neilos described Algirdas as fire-worshipping prince; another Patriarch Philotheos excommunicated all Ruthenian noblemen who helped impious Algirdas. Algirdas' pagan faith also went into the 14th Byzantine historian's Nicephorus Gregora's accounts."

But such manipulation did not prevent bigger issues to come, such as were the Teutonic Knights, who desired to input Christian faith in Lithuania. However, through his most loyal brother, Kestutis, they were swept away briefly. Although his religious views sometimes confuse historians as whether he was pagan or not - which might explain the good skills in diplomacy this duke was- his death and the name of his children were definitely pagans. As said below:

"Algirdas married Uliana, daughter of Aleksander Mikhailovich, Prince of Tver. During the 27 years of their marriage, Algirdas and Uliana had 7 sons: Jogaila (-Vladislav) in 1351, Skirgaila (-Ivan) in 1453, Katibutas (-Dmitri), Lengvenis (-Simeon) in 1360, Karigaila (-Casimir), Vygundas (-Aleksander), and Svitrigaila (-Boleslav); and 3 daughters: Helen, Maria, and Aleksandra. Because these children were born in still pagan Lithuania, the sons were given pagan Lithuania names. They converted to Christianity for political reasons later in their lives, receiving Christian baptismal names."

Despite this particular controversial view of Algirdas, whose figured was build by Christians historians (or Russians even) who claimed he was Orthodox due to many churches of that faith he build, it can be argued this was a politics of freedom of religion since there is no evidence that he prosecuted Christians, but rather was almost prosecuted by them hence why the Teutonic Knights were instigated in converting him to the "true" Holy Church. But he never did and the proof of significant paganism in his life is in his death. 

"On May 24th Algirdas' body was burned on a funeral pyre in a sacred oak grove near Vilnius according to the pagan custom of the time. Cremated with Algirdas were eighteen horses and many of his valuables."

A man of old traditions, Algirdas was definitely a figure who better represented the resistance against Christianism in Lithuania. Although this region was, afterwards, converted to that faith, it can be contested its success in general. After all, paganism there left much more inheritances than Catholicism itself and the result of this struggle was a sort of syncretism that resides in Lithuania until nowadays, especially in holidays. 

Historical characters as Algirdas can be found in any country's history, but unfortunately in these days there are other focus to infamous dynasties and its deeds. Although this article was about religion, there is much more in Algirdas we could have written about. His reign was prosperous, and, as a ruler, he was respected and skilled in diplomacy; but few were the sources found that spoke of him or even of his dynasty. Lithuania is as rich in History as any other country, but perhaps the choice in sticking to the already known makes difficult in making way to other discoveries.  

Sources: http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/LITHUANIA.htm#Algirdasdied1377B

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algirdas

http://www.truelithuania.com/romuva-neo-paganism-in-lithuania-102

http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Algirdas,+Grand+Duke+of+Lithuania

http://www.lithaz.org/history/algirdas.html

http://www.gutenberg.us/articles/algirdas,_grand_duke_of_lithuania

http://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/1962/

Wilhelm II of Germany & The Women In His Life: The Complex Relationships of the Last Emperor of Germany

                                                 

High above we have four portraits of the women related to Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany we are discussing on the article; above on the left, we have Empress Frederick of Germany, Queen of Prussia Victoria, previously nicknamed as Vicky, the princess royal of United Kingdom who was the oldest daughter of Queen Victoria and her husband Prince Albert; on the right, Princess Hermine Reuss of Greiz, the Emperor's second wife; on the centre, the portrait of Emperor himself and below, the portraits of his first wife, Empress Augusta and his favourite daughter, Princess Victoria Louise. 

Frederick William Victor Albert (in German: Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albrech), commonly known as Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia, was definitely one of the most controversial characters History knows in 20th century. Often maligned as he's seen as the cause of the first World War that had killed many and left Europe devastated, Wilhelm II's personal life is less ambiguous than his own politics. Born with a temper and a caprice personality, learned to avoid women's company as he had no touch to deal with the subjects they spoke, but nevertheless was the kindness, softest and sweetest when he was around them. 

It is impossible to understand a character by only judging his political sides. Even through them, as it is in a society, relationships are formed, engaged and sometimes dissociate by any causes. Wilhelm II as a ruler, did not rule alone, despite how often he addressed himself as the only one to rule Germany. Around him, military and furthermore controversial figures were found. However, often history gives a main focus to male companionship's. What about women's? Why were they left in most cases as footnotes?

Leaving aside politics, this article intends to give a light to the relationships Wilhelm had with the women that most surrounded him in his life: his mother, his daughter and his wives. Naturally, could be added his sisters, but perhaps the impact they left in his life are not as significant as these already cited, did.

Empress Frederick was evidently the woman who left her mark in her son's life in her own raised. Born Princess Victoria of the United Kingdom, the oldest and favourite daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, grew as a brighter child, outspoken and much like her mother. Albert was ever proud of his daughter, giving his Vicky, as she was known by the family, a happy childhood. Her marriage to Frederick, Crown Prince of Germany was a happy one, arranged by the Queen and the Crown Prince of Germany, soon to rule yet Wilhelm I. Wilhelm II was, thus, born in 1859, but his relationship with his mother was very... ambiguous. One of love and hate, indeed. As stated below:

"Victoria, princess royal of Great Britain, did not reciprocate Wilhelm's devotion. Having had high hopes for Wilhelm, she was very disappointed with her son's disability and made no effort to hide her feelings from him. As a result, the boy was burdened with feelings of inadequacy. Princess Vicky was a very difficult woman who tried to mold her son into the image of a 19th-century British liberal. Wilhelm became bitter about her and her country."

This distance would only increase when Wilhelm relied on Bismarck, a man much detested by both of his parents. Bismarck was a military, rough man who united German's states into one single country through his iron's hands. Conservative, he was a man of war who much influenced Wilhelm whilst he was the heir of the Prussian crown. And whilst such differences remained between these two, it's also argued how far was his love for his mother, some even claiming the nature of it:

"In one letter, Wilhelm writes: "I have been dreaming about your dear soft, warm hands. I am awaiting with impatience the time when I can sit near you and kiss them but pray keep your promise you gave me always to give me alone the soft inside of your hands to kiss, but of course you keep this as a secret for yourself."

In another letter, he tells her: "I have again dreamt about you, this time I was alone with you in your library when you stretched forth your arms and pulled me down. Then you took of your gloves and laid your hand gently on my lips for me to kiss it... I wish you would do the same when I am in Berlin alone with you in the evening." "

Ironically was that the rejection from Vicky's part would be the cause of Wilhelm's despise he felt for his mother's homeland, even if he spent most of his days in England and was Queen Victoria's favourite grandson. As a matter of a fact, throughout Wilhelm's childhood, must be remembered the traumas he had to deal with due to a problem he had in his left arm and whose experience affected his personality.

"As he began walking, his good arm would be tied behind his back, in an effort to force him into using his paralysed left arm, a frustrating double handicap that caused Vicky to note that: "He gets so fretful and cross and violent and passionate that it makes me quite nervous sometimes.""

As she wrote as well to Queen Victoria:

"No one should see him with this machine on... Not the servants or brothers and sisters and that it should not be talked about as it would be very painful to us."

And then, to deteriorate their relationship, the letters Wilhelm wrote when he reached age 16. In his love life, he developed a crush towards his first cousin, Grand Duchess Alice of Hesse's daughter, Elisabeth, known as Ella, who was Empress Vicky's niece as she was sister of Ella's mother. But her rejection to his proposal would affect his moral, and that's precisely when Augusta came in.

Auguste Viktoria Friederike Luise Feodora Jenny was not seen as a good match for Wilhelm, at first, due to her lineage, even though she descended from Queen Victoria of United Kingdom's half sister, Feodora and being, thus, Wilhelm's second cousin. Born into the duchy of Schleswig- Holstein, the oldest daughter of the Duke Frederick VIII had a complicated start as her sisters by law thought her rank was low for a future Emperor and Vicky herself distrusted Augusta in the beginning, but eventually Empress Dowager and Empress Augusta's relationship improved, with Augusta often seen at the company of her mother-in-law and sticking with her when Vicky was dying, despite their differences in matters of politics. With Wilhelm, their relationship, however, was definitely happier from the very beginning, despite the contrasting personalities they had. Such devotion can be especially seen here, where we observe that their differences was never an obstacle for the love that Wilhelm longed for:

"The two had a very strong and lasting connection from the very start and enjoyed a happy marriage. She was a source of both stability and pampering to her husband who, it was said, could not survive without a woman to fuss over him. For her part, she adored her husband as probably no one else in the world. She had more artistic interests than he did but they both shared a very conservative political outlook and a very deep Christian faith. (...) The Kaiser, with his notoriously stressed and eratic personality, could always find calm and comfort with Dona who would attend to his every need and invite him to pray with her. Sometimes this meant that she neglected herself. It was commented on that when the Kaiser would take his meals, she would spend most of the time attending to him rather than eating herself and by the time she started her husband would be finished and call for her to walk with him, which she would, leaving many to wonder how she was able to keep from going hungry."

Perhaps everything Wilhelm felt that his mother could not give him, he found on Augusta. She gave him seven children, being six of the male sex and the seventh being of the female one. As a wife, Augusta filled her duties just as the Empress she was, helping, defending and standing for her family regardless the occasion. In return, the Emperor doted on her, displaying her with the sincere affection and kind soul that is rarely known by others.

Of these children Augusta gave birth, it was Victoria Louise (in German: Viktoria Luise Adelheid Mathilde Charlotte) who would give Wilhelm's happiness. She was, by far, his favourite child. Victoria, nicknamed as Sissi, was regarded by willful and dignified manners, and the beauty and grace she inherited from both her parents. Popular amongst the Germans, Sissy would be one always regarded for being the dutiful princess she was. This was a consequence of the education she had as a child:

"From childhood she had been brought up strictly and with discipline, also with the possibility of becoming a regent one day"

Though little is found of their relationship, what can be said is that Wilhelm II, who was a strict father, was more permissive towards this daughter: "her oldest brother later wrote, that Victoria Louise was the only one "...who succeeded in her childhood in winning a earn corner of his heart."".

And when she was married to the grandson of King of Hanover, Ernst August, although there were some political tensions, he did not hesitate in giving her a great festivity. Of that relationship, Wilhelm II would be the great-grandfather of Queen Sophia of Spain, whose mother Frederica was the Queen of Hellenes and only daughter of Victoria Louise.

Indeed a happy home Wilhelm managed to built after his childish and early adult's life frustrations he had towards his mother in general, his eager to please and competitive ways that would make him seen as an eternal child. Well loved by his wife and his daughter, he left his teachings to them and vice-versa. With them, he became softer. And would become more so with his next wife, Princess Hermine Reuss of Greiz.

Born in December 18th 1887, in a principality, this lady who would be Wilhelm II's last and also beloved wife was quite younger than him, but age was not an obstacle for Wilhelm to remarry a year after the death of his dear Dona. Raised by the Grand Duchess of Baden, Louise, who was the daughter of Emperor Wilhelm I (Wilhelm's grandfather), Hermine was married before having met the Emperor, to a prince named Johann. With him, they had five children, one of them, Henrietta, who was married to Wilhelm's grandson, Prince Karl (he was the son of Prince Joachim, who was the favourite son of Empress Augusta). Here's an excerpt of how they meta and fell in love:

"In January of 1922, one of Hermine's sons sent birthday wishes to Wilhelm II, former German Emperor, living in exile at Huis Doorn, in Doorn, the Netherlands, who then invited the boy and his mother to Doorn. Wilhelm found Hermine very attractive and greatly enjoyed her company. Having both been recently widowed, the two had much in common. Wilhelm was determined to marry Hermine despite objections from his children. 63 year old Wilhelm and 34 year old Hermine married on November 5th, 1922 in Doorn. Although Wilhelm had abdicated, he continued to use his royal styles and titles and therefore Hermine was styled Her Imperial Majesty The German Empress, Queen of Prussia."

Towards his new wife's family, Wilhelm was less strict and perhaps more amable...

"Hermine's youngest child Princess Henriette came to live with Hermine and Wilhelm at Huis Doorn. Wilhelm stayed out of his stepchildren's affairs, with the exception of Henriette. He seemed to have a genuine affection for her, and she came to be known as "the general"".

Which explains how come Henriette was married to Wilhelm's grandson, Prince Karl. Unfortunately, in 1946 they would get divorced after only six years of marriage.

Finally, we can conclude this article by stating how influential women were and the degrees of their modeling in Wilhelm's character. It is not with this finality, however, to blame one or another who left a great mark in this controversial Emperor, but to remember the social relationships he had with these women and to remember he was too a human being that, even with his flaws, wanted the love his mother never could perfectly give him. But through both marriages, Wilhelm managed to have a peaceful life, even though it was frustrated for not having the life he wanted (as Emperor restored to his throne, a request Hitler denied for his personal dislike for monarchy). However, he did find his happiness and these strong women we here came to know are proof of the just as strong character he had that he left on them. 

As a popular dictate says: "Behind every powerful man, lies a stronger woman". Whether this is actually a dictate or not, it does represent the meaning of this article. 

Sources:http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/kaiser-wilhelm-ii-s-unnatural-love-for-his-mother-led-to-a-hatred-of-britain-8943556.html

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2507296/The-true-story-Princess-Vicky-son-Wilhelm.html

http://www.meaus.com/0188-victoria-louise.htm

http://www.unofficialroyalty.com/princess-hermine-reuss-of-greiz/

http://listverse.com/2014/11/25/10-mad-tales-from-the-life-of-germanys-last-emperor/

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-one/wilhelm-ii/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augusta_Victoria_of_Schleswig-Holstein

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Victoria_Louise_of_Prussia

http://madmonarchist.blogspot.com.br/2009/09/consort-profile-kaiserin-augusta.html

http://histclo.com/royal/ger/w2/rgw2cvl.htm

http://histclo.com/royal/ger/w2/rgw2-child.htm

http://www.thecourtjeweller.com/2015/07/tiara-timeline-prussian-tiara.html