Giovanni, 2nd Duke of Gandia: A Brief Story About The Forgotten Borgia (1474-1497)

It is true that the first names that come to our minds whenever the infamous last name 'Borgia' is mentioned, are often la bella Lucrezia, her fiercy brother Cesare and, naturally, their father, Pope Alexander VI. In pop culture, we have seen these three portrayed in movies and series, the most recent of them entitled "The Borgias", which helped in expanding their fame as the most corrupt family of Christianity to the lay people, especially by spreading the false rumour of whether Lucrezia and Cesare were actually lovers.

But, if by one side, in a positive observation, this explosion of the Borgias could culminate in curiosity that could be satisfied by an attempt of understanding who they were as historical persons and human beings; by the other, to few this curiosity will lead to another brother that was not rewarded with the same eager and feisty that characterized both Lucrezia and Cesare. So our question is: who was the real Giovanni Borgia? Was he just as fierce and temperamental as Cesare or was he another man of his time, but added with the flames of the Renaissance of the 15th century that many find such embodiment in the figure of Lucrezia? Perhaps he was a mid-term? It is in our hopes to enlight about this forgotten duke of Gandia and his contribution for Italy towards the end of Middle Ages.

Unfortunately, we come to find very little about him on the internet in general. But even with few informations, we can, nonetheless, try to sketch his way of life. Giovanni, probably born around the year of 1476, was born to the then Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, before his rising as Pope Alexander VI, and one of his many mistresses, Vannozza dei Cattanei. Apparently he was the first son of Borgia, and although named Giovanni, he would be also known as Juan, the equivalent of his Italian name in Spanish.

There is nothing about his early life or youth, but according to one of the several biographies written about his younger sister, the infamous Lucrezia Borgia, it seemed Giovanni, who was created 2nd duke of Gandia, was his father's favourite for a while.

He was married to Maria Enriquez de Luna, who was the betrothed of his deceased older half-brother Pedro Luis, and with her, the couple had:

"...three children: twins Juan de Borja y Enriquez (known as Juan Borgia, father of Francis Borgia, 4th Duke of Gandía), who became the 3rd Duke of Gandía, and Francisca de Jesús Borja, who became a nun at a convent in Valladolid. The younger Juan was the father of Saint Francis Borgia. Their third child, Isabel de Borja y Enriquez, was born after her father was killed: she grew up to be abbess of Santa Clara in Gandia."

No further information could be reached concerning Giovanni Borgia's life in general, whether be in English or Spanish, except one about his death. Throughout history, when the Borgias constituted a dubious fame of how corrupt they could have been, whenever our duke of Ganida was remembered amongst his two famous siblings, the already mentioned Lucrezia, and Cesare Borgia, it was so because this latter was reportedly to have murdered him. If not by him, Cesare was suspicious of at least having sent someone to take the life of his own brother. The cause? Some can be argued, but never with certain.

In the next paragraphs we can have a better idea of how Cesare was related to Giovanni's murder, and also how this sad event occurred.

"The story goes that on that very same afternoon, he and Cesare had eaten supper with their mother Vanozza in her country villa at Monte Martino dei Monti and they returned as night was falling. As they reached the bridge leading to the Castel Sant Angelo, Juan told his brother that he would leave him there as he needed to go somewhere on his own. Despite protestations that the streets of Rome were too dangerous for a man who had as many enemies as Juan did, all Juan would do is send a groom back to his rooms to fetch his light armour, and that he would meet the groom at the Piazza Judea. And as Cesare, and his cousin also named Juan Borgia (the younger) took the leave, Juan turned his mule towards the Ghetto. As he rode away, a masked man appeared behind him and they rode off together."

It also continues, stating that:

"Juan's disappearance was not reported until the next day but the Pope, Juan and Cesare's father was not overly worried. After all Juan was known for his amours. But as the day wore on and Juan still did not appear he [the Pope] began to panic, (...) sent for Cesare and demanded to know where Juan was. Cesare told his father what he had heard from the groom, And Pope Alexander, mad with terror, demanded a search to be made."

Apparently, a body was spotted at the river Tiber by a man named Giorgio Schiavi, who told the authorities that he gave little importance to the matter only because he was used to see bodies being constantly thrown at the river. So following this statement, the men who were sent after Giovanni:

"(...) were ordered to search the river and promised a reward. Around midday, a fisherman brought up the body of a young man, fully clothed, with his gloves stillon and a purse hung from his belt carrying 30 ducats. He was covered in stab wounds, 9 counted in total across his neck, head body and legs. It was Juan Borgia."

He was later taken to Castel Sant Angelo, where he was cleaned before the funeral procession began at the Church of Santa Maria del Apolo. The Pope did not, reportedly, show at it because he was too understandably distressed to attend the ceremony, having shut himself for a few days. And when he returned to the public, he apparently announced solemnly his son's death and from that moment on, rumours spread across Rome and all Italy, questioning who had reasons to kill Giovanni Borgia.

At first, the Orsinis, a traditional and one of the most powerful families of Italy in those days, were the suspects, before going straight to Cesare Borgia. The reason? Mainly jealousy, the desire to inherite his brother's lands or perhaps to run away from his duties to the Church. Nevertheless, others who were seen as suspicious included another old Italian aristocratic family: the Sforzas. After the failure that the marriage of Lucrezia to the son of that family came to, there would be bad blood between the families and suddenly they could have good reason to vanish with Giovanni.

Whoever committed the murder we will never know. A week later, though, the Pope stopped with the investigations. The reason for that it will never be clear, but historians believe he might have come to find the truth and preferred to be discret in dealing with it. It could be a possibility. What it is sad is that there is so little about this character, shadowed by the fame of his siblings. Perhaps the only thing he could do to match them was to be part of a tragic end, a controversy that would always be part to the components of the infamous Borgia dynasty.

Bibliography:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Borgia,_2nd_Duke_of_Gandia

http://loyaltybindsme.blogspot.com.br/2012/06/death-of-juan-borgia.html

http://www.kleio.org/en/history/famtree/vip/buch2-318/

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Tsar Alexander II Romanov: The Liberator Of Russia (1818-1881)

To celebrate this blog's first anniversary, we go back straight to Russia's monarchy. This time, the topic is about Tsar Nicholas II's grandfather, Alexander II Romanov. Like his son and grandson, Alexander II too met the misfortune of being a victim to the extremists who took his life away. Because of the communism that came to replace the monarchy system, turning Russia to the republic of soviets, the deeds of Alexander II that earned him the nickname the Liberator were thus overshadowed. And, as it happened before to other monarchs, we humbly come here in an attempt to bring back to the public knowledge this Russian figure, once very popular and loved amongst his subjects. 

So who was he? For a start, the future Emperor of all Russias was born Alexander Nikolaevich (Russian: Aleksander Nikolaevich) on April 29th (in Russia's old calendar the date was April 19th) as the oldest child of Tsar Nicholas I and his consort, Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna (née princess Charlotte of Prussia). At a young age, the Tsaverich was placed under an exemplar education, for:

"Nicholas I was determined that his son should be brought up by the finest teachers and instructors, even if their views clashed with his own. When he appointed Vasily Zhukovsky as personal tutor to the heir, the poet allegedly told the Russian autocrat that he would raise Alexander not as a regimental commander, more at home in the barracks or on the parade ground, but as a future enlightened monarch."

Indeed the heir of Nicholas I would receive an excellent education. He learned not only his maternal language, Russian, but soon could also speak and write in French, German, English and Polish. His other subjects included mathematics, physics, geography, history, political economy, statistics and law. It is said Alexander developed an appreciation for art. As he grew, Alexander's education was soon moved to the First Military Academy. There, he would:

"(...) led the exact same existence as the other cadets, appearing for roll call, participating in manoeuvres, marching on the parade-ground, hiking in full ammunition, sleeping on straw in the open air, and eating out of the common bowl (...). Carl Merder, a battle officer and the tsaverich's other tutor, wrote that Alexander commanded a platoon as an officer for the first time on 9 June 1832 and "performed his duties well". On 30 June, he took part in an imperial review, and the emperor "indicated his complete satisfaction"."

 Despite having been reported that the tsaverich would rather have a quiet home with a peaceful family, he always embraced his sense of duty. He also had an advantage of being better prepared to the throne than his predecessors and even his successors. Either way, it wasn't too soon before he was ackwnoledged for his skills as "brave horseman and a cool and composed warrior". Those were displayed during the Caucasian War, a conflict under his father's reign that would not achieve peace until the first years of Alexander as tsar, years later. For that participation at the said conflict, he was "awarded the Order of St George (fourth class) for his heroism".

In his private life, when Alexander was circa twenty one years old, he payed a visit to Queen Victoria of United Kingdom, who was only a year younger than him and was a British sovereign for two years already back then. What resulted of this meeting was, apparently, a little more than just friendly relations as we can see in the next excerpt:

"During his month-long visit, Alexander and Victoria reputedly fell in love. They went for horse rides together at Windsor, danced at balls in Buckingham Palace and once, at the theatre, Alexander visited Victoria in her box alone for over half an hour. The tsaverich hold his aide-de-camp, Colonel Simon Yurievich, that he was in love with Victoria and convinced that she felt the same way about him. Yurievich spoke with the Queen's former governess and confidante, who said that Victoria had already told her of her similar feelings for Alexander. When Tsar Nicholas I heard of the romance, he ordered his son to return to Europe. Alexander was told that a marriage was impossible, as he would have to give up the Russian throne to become a British prince consort."

It was, thus, at the German courts that Alexander would find his bride at least. Her name was Maximiliane Wilhelmine Auguste Sophie Marie of Hesse-Darmstadt, or as popular she was known, Marie of Hesse-Darmstadt. She later followed Russian rites, as consorts normally did, which was converting to the Ortodox Church of Russia and adopting a Russian name. Marie was now Maria Alexandrovna. Apparently, the two were very in love with one another, despite the controversy concerning Maria Alexandrovna's parentage: it was rumoured that her mother's children were fruit of her relationship with a lover, but even so the Grand Duke of Hesse acknowledged the two who reached adulthood, Maria and Alexander. It was apparently a happy relationship, despite Maria's poor health and her eight pregnancies that constantly left her away from court, which colaborated for her husband having some mistresses. The most famous of them was a 18 year old princess, Catherine Dolgoroky, with whom he had three children and was married only a month after Empress Maria's death, a relationship that caused quite some comotion at those days.

In March 2 1855, upon the death of Nicholas I, Alexander rose to the Russian throne as Tsar Alexander II of all Russias. He was 36 years old and by then, as already mentioned, a very prepared and highly educated sovereign, if compared to many of his relatives. He would later be compared to Peter the Great because of his political and social measures that marked his reign. Alexander also had the advantage for knowing most part of his country, since, whilst a tsaverich, he went on tour for six months throughtout Russia, being the first of the Romanovs for visiting Siberia.

One of his main measures was to diminish censorship, a trace of his antecessor's reign, which gravely reported those who dared to criticize government, this being an extreme offense; and Alexander instead gave freedom of speech, allowing independent press to flourish. He also reformed education, by creating new programmes concerning universities. Of his father, the new tsar also inherited a very fierce war, known as Crimea war, which was formed in a coalition by Britain, France and Ottoman Empire. This would come to an end with the treaty of Paris, but by then Russia lost its supremacy in territories in general. Nonetheless:

"The disastrous outcomes of the Crimean War prompted the tsar, Alexander II, to consider reforms, particularly the abolition of serfdom. By bringing an end to this medieval concept, in effect a form of bonded slavery, Alexander hoped that agricultural production could be modernised and made more efficient. This would assist the transformation of Russia from a backward agricultural economy into a modern industrial and capitalist economy. The idea of bringing an end to serfdom was hardly new. It had been suggested several times before but was always resisted by the conservative land-owning nobility, who benefited from the profits and status generated by serfdom."

This abolition of serfdom, followed by Bulgaria's independence, was:

"tackled boldly, taking advantage of a petition presented by the Polish landed proprietors of the Lithuanian provinces and, hoping that their relations with the serfs might be regulated in a more satisfactory way (...) he authorized the formation of committees "for ameliorating the condition of the peasants" and laid down the principles on which the amelioration was to be effected."

 It was an important decision that the Tsar took independently of his advisors. He sent a letter to the Governor-General of Lithuania, where he suggested that "the landed proprietors of other provinces might express a similar desire." But, unlike the expectations of the sovereign, the popular reactions to this measure were not at all suportive. What can possibly explain this reaction from the Russians, is the fact they were long tied to this activity, which means that probably a better way of doing would be in a slower rhythm. Like countries that were long bound to slavery, such as Brazil, whose liberty of slaves in 1888 was partly the cause for the fall of Brazilian monarchy in the next year, Russia's mentality was not prepared to embrace measures that, despite favouring them, were input quite quickly, breaking chains from a day to other. It is known that "extreme" measures in both countries should have been done slowly, for no social mentality changes from a day to another. In fact, this abolishment of serfdom would cause the rise of a party that was supposedly supported by the general public's opinion, named as the People's Will, whose integrants would attempt at least four times to murder the Emperor before succeeding it in 1881.

And though this abolishment was the very main reason why the Tsar was popular recalled as the Liberator of Russia, other reforms were also part of his reign such as: 

"Larger cities were given governmental assemblies similar to those of the villages. The Russian court system was reformed, and for the first time in Russian history, juries, or panels of citizens called together to decide court cases, were permitted. Court cases were debated publicly, and all social classes were made equal before the law. Censorship (or the silencing of certain opinions) was eased, which meant that people had more freedom of speech. Colleges were also freed from the rules imposed on them by Alexander's father Nicholas I"

He also "ordered the reformation of the army and navy, the implementation of new legal processes and an overhaul of the penal code". But, unfortunately for Alexander, as it happened to all Europe during his lifetime, in Russia also was marked by extreme ideas both from left and right political sides. Nonetheless, he managed to rule over them all. In fact, we can summon Alexander II's reign by these next general words:

"In foreign policy, Alexander sold Alaska to the United States in 1867, fearing the remote colony would fall into British hands if there were another war. He sought peace, moved away from bellicose France when Napoleon III fell in 1871, and in 1872 joined with Germany and Austria in the League of the Three Emperors that stabilized the European situation. Despite his otherwise pacifist foreign policy, he fought a brief war with Turkey in 1877-78, pursued further expansion into Siberia and the Caucasus, and conquered Turkestan. Although disappointd by the results of the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Alexander abided by that agreement. Among his greatest domestic challenges was an uprising in Poland in 1863, to which he responded by stripping that land of its separate constitution and incorporating it directly into Russia. Alexander was proposing additional parliamentary reforms to counter the rise of nascent revolutionary and anarchistic movements when he was assassinated in 1881."

What probably would have been the best political measure under his reign, the said Loris Melikov constitution were not to be followed by his son, Alexander III. In fact, in 1881, the liberal deeds of his father would be removed and once more, Russia were to return to iron hands. A great contrast to the last Romanov rulers, in a small scale of comparison, though far from being an ideal monarch to such a great empire, this should not, nevertheless, be the impact left in historians in general, especially by those greatly influenced by any sort of ideology. 

It is, more than never in the present days, to be taken by such a political view whenever it is due to review the accomplishments and faults of monarchs in general. But, whilst a balance should never pend to one side alone, history itself should ponder that, were not for the sovereigns who indeed worked for the people, many countries would have never reached their main point. This is why it is important to look back at Alexander II's reign and understand his notorious reforms for a country that was not prepared mentally to receive them. Looking comparatively through the reigns of his son and grandson, this can be confirmed, possibly because the advisors that surrounded Alexander III and Nicholas III were not well prepared for the task in bringing monarchy and the people to the common concern of Russia's welfare, and this can be suggested to have caused the later revolutions, as Russia was governed by extreme mentalities that did not know how to handle opposition without taking in arms to destroy what went against their supposed belief to what was better for the empire.

This, again we come to reassure, has nothing to do in pondering whether Alexander II was perfect, the best, the greastest emperor of all Russias, but to rather provoke a reflection of his faults and his qualities, which form any human being regardless their social status, and wonder why should his deeds be left of history in general and, as we have said regarding other monarchs discussed on this blog, why there is so little discussion around this figure. Alexander II died in 13 March 1881, surrounded by controversies, both in domestic affairs and outside them, but, for better or worse, later respected by his subjects.

Bibliographies:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Alexandrovna_(Marie_of_Hesse_and_by_Rhine)

http://www.historyhome.co.uk/europe/russia1.htm

http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/czar-alexander-ii-assassinated

http://russiapedia.rt.com/prominent-russians/the-romanov-dynasty/alexander-ii-liberator/

http://www.rusartnet.com/biographies/russian-rulers/romanov/tsar/alexander-ii

http://www2.sptimes.com/Treasures/TC.2.3.17.html

http://www.notablebiographies.com/A-An/Alexander-II.html

http://alphahistory.com/russianrevolution/reform-and-reaction-in-russia/

King Henry IV of France (1553-1610): The Story Of Le Bon Roi Henri, First Bourbon Of The Capetian Dynasty To Rule France and Navarre

Few were the kings who displayed not only great charisma amongst the citizens of the countries they ruled but were also capable to keep a good opinion of their reigns for a good while like Henry IV of France did even until the days of our contemporarity. The grandfather of the most well known of all French monarchs, Louis XIV, Henry IV was controversial amongst his noble contemparts, seen as traitor by the Protestants and an usurper by  the Catholics. And although he sadly had his life taken by an extreme Catholic monk, Henry earned the nickname le bon roi Henri (which in English means the good king Henry) by his subjects and throughout his reign he showed great concern by them. And today we will have a topic about this impressive royal character.

Henry of Navarre (French: Henri de Navarre) was born on the 13th or 14th day of December, 1553, at the chateau of Pau, in Béarn. He was the oldest child of the Queen of Navarre, Jeanne d'Albret and her husband, Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Vêndome and her consort. He had a younger sister, named Catherine. In his childhood, his education was firstly supervised by Henri d'Albret, King of Navarre, who was his grandfather and a brother-in-law of François I of France, before being replaced by Henry's mother, when she suceeded him on the throne of Navarre as Queen Jeanne d'Albret. That being said, it is said that:

 "his formal education from Pierre Victor Palma-Cayet and François de La Gaucherie, who reinforced his Calvinist upbringing in what was otherwise a typical Reinassance curriculum that combined book learning with training in horsemanship and the handling of arms."

Henry was also:

"trained in physicial as well as intellectual disciplines, and his later career showed the results of both aspects of his early life. His physical endurance and vigor were matched by a quick and tolerant mind; his skill as a soldier matched by his diplomatic and political astuteness in the course of his reign."

Other than that, there's not much about his childhood, except that, though he was baptised Catholic, he was raised a Calvinist and his education, as said before, was a proof of this. In his youth, Henry joined the Huguenots (French Protestants who followed Calvin's ideas) in the several battles of the Wars of Religion that would still cuminate in France for some long time. In June 9th, 1572, his mother Jeanne d'Albret, who declared Calvinism the official religion of Navarre after a long struggle against France under the regency of Catherine de' Médici, died and Henry ascended as Henri III de Navarre. Between the time of his mother's death and his ascending as sovereign of Navarre, it was arranged a marriage between Henry and Marguerite de Valois, sister of Henry III of France, and daughter of Henry II with his italian consort. 

Despite the apparently efforts of both parts in marrying their children so peace could be brought to former enemies parties, that is, Catholics and Protestants, this match would prove to be a disaster as we can see in the next paragraph:

"The wedding took place in Paris on 18 August 1572 on the parvis of Notre Dame Cathedral. On 24 August, the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre began in Paris. Several thousand Protestants who had come to Paris for Henry's wedding were killed, as well as thousands more throughtout the country in the days that followed. Henry narrowly escaped death thanks to the help of his wife and his promise to convert to Catholicism. He was made to live at the court of France, but he escpaed in early 1576."

As he escaped back to Navarre, where he would spend quite some time away from his stranged wife, popular known as la reine Margot, he also broke his promise of converting and again were at odds with Catholics. Nonetheless, situation in France seemed to change dramatically upon the death of the youngest brother of King Henry III of France, the duke of Alençon, Hercule François, known as François. Henry of Navarre was thus made the heir of the French crown because he was a directly descendant of the pious King Louis IX, but this decision led to another stage of the Wars of Religion:

"Henry's status (...) changed when, according to the Salic law of succession, he became heir presumptive to the French throne as a result of the death on 10 June 1584 of Francis, Duke of Alençon (1555-1584). The specter of a Huguenot sucession caused a clash between the rules governing a hereditary succession and the monarchy's long and close affiliation with Catholicism. As a result, the question of Henry of Navarre's confessional allegiances became the central issue of the day. Militan Catholics rallied to the Holy League revived in 1584 by Henry of Lorraine, duke of Guise (1550-15589), especially after Pope Sixtus V (ruled 1585-1590) excommunicated Navarre the next year. The inability of Henry III (ruled 1574-1589) to maintain order following this humiliating expulsion from Paris on the Day of the Barricades (12 May 1588) culminated in his calamitous decision on 24 December 1588 to order the murders of Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis, the cardinal of Guise. "

This decision, in the middle of the event that was later regarded as the War of the Three Henrys, proved to be a very impopular one. The French subjects did not receive well to the news and unfortunately for Henry, he was murdered by a fanatical monk on 1 August 1589. As a result of this, the king of Navarre was now also the king of France, except he was now Henri le Quatre (English: Henry the Fourth). But his rise to the throne did not bring peace as expected. Catholics remained a problem for Henry IV, and he was forced to deal with rebellions for at least five years before he agreed to convert to Catholicism, in an act that frustrated his Protestant allies like Queen Elizabeth I of England. 

This resolution, some say, was possibly heavily influenced by his Catholic mistress Gabrielle d'Estrées, whom he adored and cherished, and with whom he fathered three sons already; and also from his most trusted ally, a Protestant man named Maximilien de Béthun, baron of Rosny and duke of Sully. However, "the famous phrase 'Paris is worth a mass' actually came from Catholics who wanted to impugn the sincerity of Henry IV's conversion." In 1594, Henry was thus crowned following Catholic rites and in the next year he received a papal bulle from Pope Clement VIII confirming his conversion and "bestowing a papal absolution upon him".

It was not until the success of his entrance in Paris that Henry IV managed to rule properly. He had inherited a country devastated by the years of civil wars, with cities in ruins and several castles destroyed, also affected by plagues and a very broken economy. It is supposed he declared the following quote: "I tell you that at the time God called me for this crown, I found France not merely in a sate of ruin, but nearly lost for Frenchmen." So one of his measures concerned introduced:

"a ministerial style of government that restricted the judicial prerogatives, claimed by the parlements and provincial privileges claimed by local representative assembles. In 1604, Henry IV regularized the heritable nature of venal offices by the payment of a special fee known as the Paulette. He also cultivated close relations with the old nobility by showering them with pensions and titles: those aristocrats who conspired against him felt his full wrath, however, as demonstrated by the execution of Charles, duke of Biron (1562-1602). Henry also encouraged the beginnings of Catholic reform among both churchmen and the lay public, working hard at the same time to uphold the protections recently granted to the Huguenots. On the economic front, the king entrusted to Barthélemy de Laffemas (1545-1611) the execution of innovative measures to restore commerce and living standards--a campaign reflected in the contemporary slogan of a 'chicken in every pot' (la poule an pot)"

He also relied in his privy council, in French called "Conseil des Affaires", which was consulted daily by Henry IV every day and it was also composed by six men. He also depended on written instructions, and on intendants who "were once again used to bring royal authority to the provinces". The apogee of his reign, though, was the Edict of Nantes, in 1598, which was aimed to provide not only an end between the rivalries of Catholics and Protestants, but also to give the Huguentos freedom in practicing their religion, assuring they could do so in public, aside of other important factors. 

"Signed by Henry IV of France at Nantes on April 13th, 1598, the edict put a temporary end to the ferocious religious wars between Roman Catholics and Protestants which had torn France apart since the 1560's. (...) After a skilful persuasion by Catholic diplomats and much hard bargaining, they [the Huguenots] accepted a document of ninety-two articles granting them a measure of religious toleration as well as social and political equality. Huguenots were to be entitled to worship freely everywhere in France in private, and publicly in some 200 named towns and on the estates of Protestant landowners. They were permitted to inherit property, engage in trade, attend all schools and universities, and be treated in hospitals on the same basis as everyone else. There was a full amnesty for crimes committed during the wars by both sides and in secret articles, signed on May 2nd, the government agreed to pay the Protestant pastors and subsidise the garrisons of some fifty Huguenot fortified towns."

And although this worked perfectly well on the reign of Henry IV and afterwards on the reign of his son, the edict would be ratified by his grandson Louis XIV. Unlike some of his predecessors, much of what Henry IV did aimed to reach all classes, which explains why his popularity remained intact even when the French Revolution exploded in the end of the 18th century. He supposedly said, in Ordinance of Blois, in 1599, in respect for the draining of mashlan that:

"The power and wealth of kings and sovereign princes consists in the opulence and number of their subjects. And the great and legitimate gain and revenue of people...proceeds essentially from their laboring and cultivation of the land which gives them in return, so pleases God, the fruit of their labor, by producing great quantities of wheat, wine, grains, vegetables and pasture land; sufficient not only to live in comfort, but to entertain traffic and commerce with our neighbors and distant countries."

The same year of the edict of Nantes also came to an end the war with Spain by the signing of the Treaty of Vervins. And in 1599, his marriage to Marguerite de Valois was finally annulled, so the path to marry his lover, though strongly advised in not doing so by his counsellors, was free. However, Gabrielle d'Éstrees died mysteriously this year, putting an end to the king's long desire, leaving him devastated. Her death is a controversial subject: whilst some sources claim she died in childbirth, others point to poisoning as cause of her death. Despite this, "the king instead married Marie de Médicis (1573-1642), daughter of the Duke of Tuscany, in October 1600. On 27 September 1601, she bore him the future Louis XIII (...), who continued the Bourbon line." The marriage would also produce the Queen of England, Henriette Marie, who was born a year before her father's death, and would marry King Charles I of England and Scotland, thus making Henry IV the grandfather of Charles II and James II, and a great-great-great grandfather to Louis XV of France. 

Despite the efforts of governing his realm less with strenght than his kind will, Henry IV suffered at least dozen assassination attempts. Eventually, one of those succeeded, and unfortunately on the 14th day of May, 1610, Henry IV was stabbed twice in his chest by a fanatic Catholic. The french sovereign did not make it and he died before getting to his residence. A story tells that his son with his former mistress, Gabrielle, the duke of Vendome told him about a horoscope which predicted his death, but instead of giving ears to such a thing, Henry IV reportedly cried out that "La Brosse is an ass". The king was then buried in Saint Denis Basilica. His consort, Marie de' Médici, served as regent to their son Louis XIII until 1617.

"On the day in question the king started out to visit his minister, Sully, at the Arsenal. It was then in turning from the Rue Saint Honoré into the Rue de la Ferronière that the royal coach, frequently blocked by crowds, offered the opportunity to the assassin Ravaillac, who, jumping upon the footboard, stabbed the king twice in the breast."

Henry IV was a very popular king, as already pointed, and for that he was regarded as Le Bon Roi Henri ("The Good King Henry"), or even Henri le Grand ("Henry the Great"). His gallant manners earned him the nickname of Le Vert Gallant (In English:"The Green Gallant") especially after being reputed of having at least 56 mistresses! There is also:

"A description of him in 1567 reads: "He demeans himself towards all the world with so easy a carriage that people crowd around wherever he is. He enters into conversation as a highly polished man. He is well informed and never says anything which ought not to be said. He loves play and good living." Henry's physical skill and military prowess brought him the friendship of many men and his passionate nature brought him the love of many women (too many, his wife and subjects often thought). He also had a reputation for being high spirited and good humoured."

He was one of the few monarchs that still inspired respect after French Revolution, though because of this event, his head was forever lost and until our days it was not found, remaining thus a mystery. In popular culture, he can be seen in the following french movies: "La Reine Margot" and "Henri IV".

Bibliography:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France

http://www.biography.com/people/henry-iv-9335199#synopsis

http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/french-history-biographies/henry-iv-france

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france-in-the-sixteenth-century/henry-iv/

http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/351-07.htm

http://schillerinstitute.org/educ/hist/2014/vereycken-henri_iv-sully.html

http://blog.catherinedelors.com/14th-of-may-1610-assassination-of-king-henri-iv/

http://josfamilyhistory.com/htm/nickel/burch/epperson-stories/henri-iv-assassination.htm

http://www.azquotes.com/author/61286-Henry_IV_of_France

http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/edict-nantes

Pedro II of Brazil: The Last Magnanimous Emperor Of Brazil (1825-1891)

            

                               

                                       

This october we celebrate one year ever since it was decided to carry on with an old idea of writing about royals, known by the public in general or not. So one has decided to open it with a figure that for a while was neglected by the Brazilian historians, Emperor Dom Pedro II.

In our previous posts concerning the history of royals inside Brazil's dynasty of Orléans-Bragança, we have already discussed Pedro II's stepmother, Amélie de Leuchtenberg, and his wife, Teresa of Two-Siciles. Today, we turn our eyes instead to the second, but sadly the last emperor to rule Brazil. Being the direct descendant of Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa of Habsburg, Pedro was ignored mostly in the 20th century by the Brazilian historiography because of the republicanism and its influence in 'making history'. Nonetheless, in our recent days, there has been a recent attempt to change that, and a few biographies about Pedro and the royal family in general can be found in libraries and on the internet.

Born Pedro of Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier of Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga of Habsburg and Braganza, the future Emperor was the seventh child of Pedro I of Brazil & IV of Portugal and Maria Leopoldina, archduchess of Austria who was one of the daughters of Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. On the side of his mother, Pedro had Habsburg blood, and was a great great grandson of Empress Maria Theresa, also already discussed on a topic here, and on the side of his father he was a grandson of Dom João VI of Portugal and his consort Carlota Joaquina.

When he was a year old, Pedro lost his mother, Empress Maria Leopoldina, and two years later, his father would remarry to Amélie of Leutchenberg, to whom Pedro would remain attached for the rest of his life and exchange letters until the end of her days. Following the year of 1831, Pedro I abdicated the throne to the then Prince Imperial, selecting José Bonifácio de Andrada as the boy's guardian, and departing to Portugal to fight for Pedro's sister Maria's throne, which was usurped by Dom Miguel, Pedro I's brother. Mariana de Verdana, affectionately called by Pedro II as Dadama, held her post as his governess. Another one left in charge to take care of Pedro was a man named Rafael, a veteran who fought the War of Cisplatine next to the young emperor's father. Rafael was already an employée of the Palace of São Cristóvão who carried the duty of looking after Pedro II throughout the rest of his life.

Pedro II's childhood was not very happy. He "spent his days studying, with only two hours set aside for amusement. (...) He was able to acquire knowledge with great ease. However, the hours of study were strenuous and the preparation for his role as monarch was demanding. He had few friends of his age and limited contact with his sisters. All that coupled with the sudden loss of his parents gave Pedro II an unhappy and lonely upbringing. The environment in which he was raised turned him into a shy and needy person who saw books as a refuge and retreat from the real world."

As for his early days as sovereign of such a large country, those were marked by instabilities, such as a Civil War between the Crown and the South in a long dispute by this latter's desire of independence amongst other rebellions. Because the regency was seen as failure by many, especially through the eyes of the liberals, "the possibility of lowering the young Emperor's age of majority, instead of waiting until he turned 18, had been floated since 1835. His elevation to the throne had led to a troublesome period of endles crises. (...) According to historian Roderick J. Barman, by 1840, "they had lost all faith in their ability to rule the country on their own. They accepted Pedro II as an authority figure whose presence was indispensable for the country's survival". When asked by politicians if he would like to assume full powers, Pedro II shyly accepted. On the following day, 23 July 1840, the General Assembly (the Brazilian Parliament) formally declared the 14-year-old Pedro II of age. He was later acclaimed, crowned and consecrated on 18 July 1841."

Having been raised to a monarch filled with sense of duty, Pedro would bring great development throughout the years he reigned in Brazil. An Emperor who could speak nine languages, with great interest for sciences, technologies and arts, Pedro II collected a variety of friends, from republicans to scientists. When he travelled, especially to United States where he was acquainted to Alexander Graham Bell and president Ulysses S. Grant, his "down to earth " manners earned him the nickname of "Yankee emperor"; in Europe too, where he often visited, he insisted not only to pay such travels himself, refusing to use the government's economy for such, but also to be treated humbly as Pedro of Alcântara, avoiding to caught attention from the press.

In matters of his personal life, Pedro II was betrothed to Teresa Christina of Two-Siciles, a granddaughter of Maria Theresa of Habsburg's daughter, Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples, also a first cousin to Pedro's mother, Maria Leopoldina. Teresa's brother sent a portrait that beautified her features, but in reality to him, as they first met, it became a great disappointment for him. Teresa was not the beauty expected, but neither she was ugly. Despite Pedro II's extra marital affairs, whose infamous mistress was the Countess of Barral, who was supposedly disliked by the Empress, the two developed an affectionate relationship, even though it did not turn out to be a match love. Teresa gave Pedro a few children, of whom only two survived to adulthood: the princesses Isabel and Leopoldina. These two would later be well married to princes whoses houses were connected to the traditional monarchies in Europe, especially in the 19th century: Isabel's husband, Gastón, Count of Eu, was a member of the ancient french house of Orléans and also a grandson to the french king Louis Philippe; whilst Leopoldina's husband, Prince Ludwig, was a cousin twice removed of Queen Victoria of United Kingdom and her husband Prince Albert from the side of the house of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Because of these close relations, Pedro was often seen in Germany. He also visited Great Britain, having been received by Queen Victoria in her Scottish residence in Balmoral.

Where it concerns his rule in Brazil, it is important to take notice he was careful to drive a country divided by factions and marked by a slavery culture which shaped a great part of conservative members leaded by farmers. However, even with great opposition faced by a new party, formed by Republicans, the Emperor greatly encouraged freedom's speech. There were several journals that criticized his rule but none of them was closed. He also managed to hold the crown throughout rebellions that exploded in his reign, and had a great concerned with education and public schools. One of his most famous quotes state that: "Were I not an Emperor, I would like to be a teacher. I do not know of a task more noble than to direct young minds and prepare the men of tomorrow." This fondness for teaching and culture would reflect directly in "the creation of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute to promote research and preservation in the historical, geographical, cultural and social sciences. The Imperial Academy of Music and National Opera and the Pedro II School were also founded, the latter serving as a model for schools throughout Brazil. The Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts, established by his father, received further strengthening and support. Using his civil list income, Pedro II provided scholarships for Brazilian students to study at universities, art schools and conservatories of music in Europe. He also financed the creation of the Institute Pasteur, helped underwrite the construction of Wager's Bayreuth Festspielhaus, as well as subscribing to similar projects. His efforts were recognized both at home and abroad. Charles Darwin said of him: "The Emperor does so much for science, that every scientific man is bound to show him the utmost respect."." It is also said that Pedro II amazed Friedrich Nietzsche with his intelect and that Victor Hugo claimed D.Pedro II was the grandson of the great Julius Cesar. The Emperor was also a member of the Royal Society, Russian Academy of Arts, American Geographical Society, amongs others. In 1875 he was elected to be part of the French Academy of Arts, of which only Napoléon Bonapart and Peter the Great of Russia were selected members.

He was also "interested in expanding his country's primary agricultural commodities and in making Brazil a major cotton producer. After the defeat of the Confederate States in the U.S. Civil War, the emperor invited successful Confederate cotton planters to settle in Brazil. Between 1867 and 1871, when slavery was still legal in Brazil, at least three thousand Confederate families passed through the port of Rio de Janeiro. About 80 percent of the families returned to the United States, but one successful American settlement in Brazil--Americana, founded by Colonel William Hutchinson Norris (1800-1893) of Mobile, Alabama--still exists."

Back to domestic politics, Pedro II was forced to deal with Parliament, Senate and, as early mentioned, factions that were divided by liberals and conservatives. At first, this would make him head of state in a similar manner Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom was, but with a small difference: Pedro held the moderation power (Portuguese: poder moderador), which meant "he could affect legislation already proposed, but could not initiate much of anything himself. He used his power judiciously, and the factions in the legislature were so contentious among themselves that Pedro was able to effectively wield much more power tha he supposedly had."

From 1850 on, an internal improvement could be seen, through the reforms that aimed to develop economy, conciliate the divided factions that struggled for power by promoting less partisanship and forward infrasctruture. We can better comprehend it in the next paragraph:

"The Emperor's more notable political successes were achieved primarily because of the non-confrontational and cooperative manner with which he approached both issues and the partisan figures with whom he had to deal. He was remarkably tolerant, seldom taking offense at criticism, opposition or even incompetence. He did not have the constitutional authority to force acceptance  of his initiatives without support, and his collaborative approach towards governing kept the nation progressing and enabled the political system to successfully function. The Emperor respected the prerogatives of the legislature, even when they resisted, delayed or thwarted his goals and appointments. Most politicians appreciated and supported his role."

In essence, he was a peacemaker, but this did not stop him in getting Brazil to a war against Paraguay. This, in an alliance with Argentina and Uruguay that was known by the name of Triplice Alliance, was a result of ambitious moves from Paraguay's dictator Francisco Lopes. Though Pedro preferred to use a dialogue at first, he had no choice but send imperial troops after Lopes invaded Mato Grosso do Sul, in an attempt to attach it. This conflict happened almost at the same time tensions with Great Britain threatened to lead to war, due to diplomatic issues of both sides, when the British ambassador "sent an ultimatum containing abusive demands arising out of two minor incidents at the end of 1861 and beginning of 1862. The first was the sinking of commercial barque on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul after which its goods were pillaged by local inhabitants. The second was the arrest of drunken British officers who were causing a disturbance in the streets of Rio. The Brazilian government refused to yield, and Christie issued orders for British warships to capture Brazilian merchant vessels as indemnity" until he "chaned his tenor and proposed a peaceful settlement through international arbitration."

Few conflicts marked his reign with the same importance of these wars as the abolitionist movement. Though Pedro II, who never owned any slaves, was one of the few who openly supported the abolitionists, he delayed the abolition for political purposes: Brazilian's monarchy was greatly supported by the farmers who owned slaves, and by that time more than 50% of the country's economy was moved by agriculture. Little by little, though, he initiated these steps with three important laws: the first one, known as law of the free belly, was promulgated in 1871 and regarded to set free the children of slaves, though they should continue working until they reached 21 years old. The second law, known as the law of Sexagenarian, was promulgated in 1885 and released from slavery those who were 65 years old and above. Yet it received a launch of criticism due to the state a slave reached in life.

It would not be until 1888 that 'Golden Law' (Portuguese: Lei Áurea) were promulgated. Signed by Pedro II's eldest daughter, princess Isabel, this law came to abolish effectively slavery in all Brazil. It was one of the last western countries to do so. But it had its consequences. Pedro II was getting sick by this time, and was on his travels around Europe when this happened. Isabel was left regent, though against his will. Although Pedro and his family were popular, monarchy was not. In November 15th, 1889, a coup d'état replaced monarchy to republicanism. There was not, unlike other countries that sought to make such a transition, popular involvement into this. Dissastified farmers, once owners of slaves, joined the militars who sent away Pedro II, his consort and children to exile. Many would be surprised after the deposition of Emperor Pedro, who was very liked by brazilian population. He died in exile, missing the country he loved and it was not until 1921 he would be buried in the city of Petrópoles, in Rio de Janeiro.

So, looking back at his reign, we can generally observe that "Pedro II was popular, but his policies in economic and social matters proved problematic. Entanglements in Latin American wars also plagued his reign. In 1850, the slave trade was prohibited; in 1871, gradual emancipation was granted; and in 1888, with Pedro II absence in Europe, his daughter Isabel, acting ruler, signed a law abolishing slavery. The nature of Brazil's agrarian economy and the power of plantation owners led to opposition to the nature of these laws. A growing coalition of the urban middle class, plantation owners, and military leaders united in opposition to the traditional monarchy (...). Pedro II wrote late in his reign 'If I were not an emperor, I should like to be a school teacher. i know of no calling greater or noble than that of directing young minds and of training the men of the future" (Williams, 1937, p 214). (...) During his reign, progress was made to foster in Brazil the quest for learning. After the war with Paraguay, he learned of efforts to erect an equestrian statue of him. Pedro II promptly wrote a letter encouraging that the money be used for the construction of more primary school buildings or improvements in existig public buildings. "

Pedro of Alcantara was a simply man, with fine tastes, and had an important part in the development of Brazilian's culture. On the current days, he is no longer seen as an emperor who was deposed in favor of a better democracy; a better recognition has been working to change this image. Emperor Pedro II might have had his faults, as any politician -being a royal or not- had in any of the period we study, but he did his best for the country he loved. He was respected by his enemies, adored by his subjects, and definitely improved the image of the royal family that his father left damaged as he was sent to exile. Unfortunately, Pedro II followed the destiny of Pedro I, but his inheritance is thankfully being recovered and his character, studied, as should be.

Biography:

http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?action=read&artid=427

http://biography.yourdictionary.com/pedro-ii

http://www.wfmz.com/features/History-s-Headlines/historys-headlines-the-emperor-pays-a-call-dom-pedro-ii-ruler-of-brazil-dazzled-lehigh-valley-with-a-visit/21409658

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil

http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/thehistoryofbrazil/p/Emperor-Pedro-Ii-Of-Brazil.htm

http://madmonarchist.blogspot.com.br/2009/07/monarch-profile-emperor-pedro-ii-of.html

http://international.loc.gov/intldl/brhtml/br-1/br-1-5-2.html

http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/brazilian-history-biographies/pedro-ii

http://www.lexiophiles.com/english/dom-pedro-ii-brazils-last-emperor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston,_Count_of_Eu#Early_years

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Ludwig_August_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha

http://www.historiadobrasil.net/brasil_monarquia/leis_abolicionistas.htm

King James V: The Pious and Popular Sovereign of Scotland (1516-1542)

If previously we have discussed two of the female members of the Stewart/Stuart Dynasty, such as Margaret Tudor the Queen of Scots and her great great granddaughter, Elizabeth Stuart, the Winter Queen, today the topic is about a figure of the same dynasty, commonly known as the father of the infamous Mary, Queen of Scots. 

Yet, the question of his figure remains, after all, who was he? Besides as regarding his relationship with his heiress, why is there so little talk about him? James V's own death is particularly a cause that would make him less "interesting" to many, considering that he wasn't killed in a battlefield like James IV neither had a dramatic death like his daughter, instead dying in his bed. To those who expect to find an extreme end in James V's life is a mistake at the same time it should not be a reason to disregard his deeds as the king he was. So today is an attempt to bring to public discussion that James Stewart was far from only being the father of Mary, Queen of Scots.

Born on the 10th day of April, the year being 1516, at the Linlithgow Palace. His parents were Margaret Tudor and James IV of Scotland, thus making him the grandson of Henry VII of England. When he was seven months old, James inherited the crown from his father, upon his death at the Battle of Flooden as a result of conflicts with the English. Towards the end of the month of September, the 21st day to be specific, the infant king was crowned at the Chapel Royal, located in the Stirling Castle. What we know of his early childhood can be said below:

"In February 1517, James came from Stirling to Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh, but during an outbreak of plague in the city he was moved to the care of Antoine d'Arces at nearby rural Craigmillar Castle. At Stirling, the 10 -year-old James had a guard of 20 footmen dressed in his colours, red and yellow. When he went to the park below the Castle, "by secret and in right fair and soft wedder (weather)", six horsemen would scour the countryside two miles roundabout for intruders. Poets wrote their own nursery rhymes for James and advised him on royal behavior. As a youth, his education was in the care of University of St Andrews poets such as Sir David Lyndsay. William Stewart, in his poem Princelie Majestie, counselled James against ice-skating."

His mother, the Queen Dowager, Margaret Tudor was, in this time, given the regency of her boy king. However, the next year, it was John Stewart, who  was next in line for the Scottish throne after his nephew, since Margaret was married to the 6th Earl of Angus, Archbald Douglas. Although many assume this to be a love match, one may assume this was one rather to provide safety for a woman in a foreigner country, a way to gather her allies and forment an alliance to hold her power in Scotland, strenghtening thus an Anglo-Scottish relationship. However, this would prove to be amiss and, as already mentioned, John Stewart came to replace her as regent for the king. 

Until, "in 1526 Angus obtained control of the king, and kept him in close confinement until 1528, when James, escaping from Edinburgh to Stirling, put vigorous mesures in execution against the earl, and compelled him to flee to England." It was said that the reason James V had illegitimate children before 20 years of age is related to his stepfather's the earl of Angus desire of alienate him from his duties as king. But, before he managed to get away of Archbald Douglas' claws, "there were several attempts made to free the young king- one by Walter Scott of Branxholme and Buccleuch, who ambushed the king's forces on 25 July 1526 at the battle of Melrose, and was routed off the field. Another attempt later that year, on 4 Sept at the battle of Linlithgow Bridge, failed again to relieve the King (...)".

So when he freed himself from Douglas, "the first action James took as king was to remove Angus from the scene. The Douglas family were forced into exile and James besieged their castle at Tantallon. He then subdued the Border rebels and the chiefs of the Western Isles. As well as taking advice from his nobility and using the services of the Duke of Albany in France and at Rome, James had a team of professional lawyers and diplomats, including Adam Otterburn and Thomas Erskine of Haltoun." 

For this reason, James was more sympathetic to the causes of his people, with some historians claiming the nickname of "King of the Commons", especially after a legend that says he would travel every now and then disguised as a man, "describing himself as the 'Gudeman of Ballengeich' ('Gudeman' means 'landlord' or 'farmer', and 'Ballengeich' was the nickname of a road next to Stirling Castle--meaning 'windy pass' in Gaelic)." He was also fond of the English costumes, having been known for being an Anglophile. James could too play a lute instrument, being a very good player; and he was said to have been the author of many poems during his reign, although this cannot be confirmed. With poetry and music being arts he very deeply appreciated, a consequence for this king of Renaissance, James also "maintained a band of Italian musicians who adopted the name Drummond." According to Sir Thomas Wood, "James had a 'a singular good ear and could sing that he had never seen before (sight-read), but his voice was 'rawky' and 'harske'". 

In matters of politics, James had much learned from his experience being under the guard of the 6th Earl of Angus. He held constant suspicious from nobility, and even tried to balance it with reasonable comprehension of the needs in articulating with it, which was quite uncommon. James sought to favour peace relations with England, and his uncle, King Henry VIII, was reported to send if not a lion and very expensive gift after he attempted to stop the bad press concerning the English monarch in the High lands. Another of the good deeds of James comes in making a better approach and relationship with the Scottish tribes, even though this would not last long because of his early death in 1542. He also "slowly began to rebuild the shattered finances of the Crown, largely enriching the funds of the monarchy at the expense of the Church."

Being a very pious man, James V was a strike key to opposite the Protestant Reform to reach the High Lands. He burnt at stake the first Scottish Protestant martyr, Patrick Hamilton on the 29th February 1529 and four of his illegitimate sons went to the Church, with the Pope recognizing them as natural sons of the Crown. That leads us to the fact James had at least nine illegitimate children, and the most famous of them was his son with his favourite mistress, Margaret Erksine, the 1st Earl of Moray, James Stewart. 

As for his marriage, though it is known he was married twice to two French noble women, it was earlier suggested other names for him. Amongst them, we came up with Catherine de' Médici and his cousin Mary Tudor, having even been in a contract with Mary of Bourbon. And despite looking elsewhere, James decided to renew the Auld Alliance, an old peace treaty arranged between France and Scotland centuries before James's reign and which had traditionally been given benefits for both realms when times requested it. So to put more pressure in to it, James travelled all the way to France himself, once King Francis I found hesitating in sending his daughter's hand Madeleine to a diplomatic marriage because of her poor health. Nonetheless, they were successfully married, but no more than six months and the french princess did not survive, some having claiming that she died in the king's arms.

In the next year, James looked for another bride and King Henry VIII tried to persuade him for doing so. It seems both kings had the same desire of marrying the same woman: Marie de Guise, adopted fille (daughter) of the King Francis. Marie de Guise, or de Lorraine, was the eldest daughter of the duke of Guise. She was reportedly tall, enjoying a robust health and of an admiring beauty, having been already a widow mother of two healthy boys. However, she chose James V over Henry VIII and soon they were married; Marie would deliver two boys also as consort of James but they would not survive infancy, and the only one who did so would be Mary.

With the death of his mother in 1541, any chance of reconciling peace with England was buried with her. Henry VIII proposed a meeting with his nephew in an attempt to persuade him to deter him of the Auld Alliance, but with Marie's pregnancy and the debility of James' health, amongst other problems, leaded Henry Tudor to break in to Scotland. There, despite some victories, the Scottish army fell and the loss would devastate James, leaving him depressed and putting an end to his already poor health. Some accounts say, on the other hand, that what happened to James V of Scotland  "on 6 December, (...)  was a nervous collapse caused by the defeat, and he may have died from the grief."

He was on his deathbed when Mary was born and, before he was dead, was "reported to have said "it came wi a lass, it'll gang wi a lass" (meaning "it began with a girl and will end with a girl"). This was either a reference to the Stewart dynasty's accenssion to the throne through Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert the Bruce or to the medieval origin myth of the Scots nation". Having died on midnight of December 15th 1542, James V of Scotland was buried at Holyrood Abbey, in Edinburgh.

What should be held here in consideration is some aspects that do not match to the perspective of  an absolutist king that was trending in England, France and Spain's monarchies. On the contrary, James, as a man, was a patron of the arts, the embodiment of the concept of Renaissance as much as in many ways his uncle tried to be; he had inherited from his mother aspects of the English culture, that, sadly, could not have been deeply approached here because of lack of material. As a king, he was a pious and devouted man who relied on his independence from the secular and religious men, but at the same time he managed to use his relationship as the good Catholic man with the Church not only to fight away Protestantism but to enrich the Scottish crown. He was not corrupt and, as far as it can be said, not a volatile man, despite his temper and melancholy, two characteristics said to have been present at his daughter Mary's character. James was good. Not perfect, but a good king. Unfortunately, because of social expectations considering who can be a hero or who can be a villain, it is not seen as heroic or even a mid term someone who did not embody the tragic elements that his father and later his daughter had. A meaningful death. Nonetheless, James' death would have probably greater meaning in our days where depression is so much more known and better understood. That pride devastated and left our king to the death is as horrifying as being killed by one's beliefs. And that is precising why James Stewart should never be left aside of historiography.

Bibliography:

http://unusualhistoricals.blogspot.com.br/2011/08/illegitimate-children-of-james-v.html

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