Charles Martel: the Hammer of Francia. (686-741)

Whenever we turn our eyes to the Carolingean dynasty, it's most common that we have in mind Charlemagne, who, reasonably so, was responsible for most of his military conquests in High Middle Ages. Not very behind him, though, it was his grandfather, Charles Martel, who was also encharged for shaping the country we know as France, but in his days had another name: Francia. Like Charlemagne in a few generations later, Charles was also a religious man and his military skills were the cause why the islamics never conquered Francia, in the beginning of their retreat to Middle West.

But his life was hardly easy from the beginning. Charles Martel (Deustch: Karl Martel) was born in 686. His father was Pepin II of Herstal and possibly his mistress, sometimes acknowledged as his second wife, a noblewoman named Alpaida, in days where poligamy was tolerated, and which might explain that assuming Charles was illegitimate, perhaps is not the ideal. Regardless of his situation, he was the son of the Mayor of Austrasia, located in the eastern Frankish kingdom. The Mayor was a position of officers who encharged of managing the king's household before becoming guardian to minor kings. However, even when those reached majority, the Mayors still:

"(...) acted as chief officer of the government in his name. And as several of the young kings, even when they were old enough to rule, gave less attention to business than to pleasure, the mayors continued to do all the business, until at last they did everything that the king ought to have done. They made war, led armies in battle, raised money and spent it, and carried on the government as they pleased, without consulting the king."

 "(...) It meant the mayor of leader of the palace, eventually evolving into the role of king. At the time of Charles' birth, the Merovingian line of kings was failing. The Mayor overshadowed the king, reducing the actual king (in this case, Dagobert III) to little more than a figurehead. Pepin II had absolute power to include control of the treasury and the dispensation of offices."

Having been perceived how great being a Mayor was, it's almost no surprise to tell that this position would be disputed between Charles and the first wife of his father, on behalf of their eight-year-old son after Pepin's death. In fact, at his deathbed, he was convinced by Plectrude to give his position as Mayor transferred to their young son. Although part of the nobility of Austrasia had accept it, the noblemen of Neustria refused Theudoald as the new Mayor, especially since Plectrude would act as regent until his majority. As a result, a Civil War would implode and Charles Martel was imprisoned in Cologne within a year by Plectrued, who feared that his figure would rise uprisings all over Francia, which eventually came to happen, but he managed to escape from this imprisonment after obtaining the support of the Austrasian nobility. Consequently, Charles self proclaimed as Mayor of Francia.

This Civil War was marked by two important battles that would leave an important impression into the young Charles Martel. The first, as we known the Battle of Cologne, was the first and possibly only defeat of Charles in his whole life. This happened because he did not gather enough men to beat the army of Neustrians, otherwise known as western Franks, joined by their Germanic allies named Frisians. 

The second was the Battle of Amblève, in another Frankish region named Austrasia, a decisive battle where Charles used innovatives methods alongside his allies to defeat the Neustrians and Frisians rivals, led by King Chilperic II, mayor Ragenfrid and the Duke of Frisians, Radbod. As we can see in the next paragraph:

"Charles caught up with the retreating Neustrian Army near Malmedy at the Battle of Ableve and completely routed them. This battle would prove Martel innovative on the battlefield, something that would mark him in future conflicts."

"He appeared where his enemies least expected him, while they were marching triumphantly home and far outnumbered him. He also attacked when least expected, at midday, when armies of that era traditionally were resting. Finally, he attacked them how they least expected it, by feigning a retreat to draw his opponents into a trap. The feigned retreat, next to unknown in Western Europe at that time--it was a traditionally eastern tactic--required both extraordinary discipline on the part of the troops and exact timing on the part of their commander. Charles, in this battle, had begun demonstrating the military brilliance that would mark his rule."

As a result of the intern conflit, he "restored centralized government in Francia and began the series of military campaigns that reestablished the Franks as the undisputed masters of all Gaul." Little by little, Charles started an union over the Frankish reunion, especially by seizing lands or being acknowledged as the overlord of some otherwise independent duchies. It's also remarked that feudalism had its beginning under his command. It must be remembered as well that Charles was no king of the Franks just yet, despite rulling the region as if he was one. Once his internal matters were resolved, or the most important of these anyway, he was acknowledged as Mayor, Prince and Duke of Francia. 

As for his relationship with the Church, it was general good. He was, in fact, a :

"great patron of Saint Boniface and made the first attempt at reconciliation between the Papacy and the Franks. The Pope wished him to become the defender of the Holy See and offered him the Roman consulship. Martel refused the offer"

Where foreign policy is concerned, Christiniaty in general was concerned with the advance of the empire of the Islamics. Compared to Byzantinum's, or perhaps in response to it, the Islamics have not only enlarged in matters of territory, but their ambitions pushed it forward into Western Europe. After their conquest in the Iberian Peninsula, the Islamic turned their eyes to the Franks, believing this to be an easy conquest as it was a spread belief that the Frankish kings did absolutely nothing. But they would be proved wrong. 

"Charles' attention was called to foreign conflicts, and dealing with the Islamic advance (...) was a foremost concern. Arab and Berber islamic forces had conquered Spain (711), crossed the Pyrenees (720), seized a major dependency of the Visgoths (721-725), and after intermittent challenges, under Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, the Arab Governor of al-Andalus, advanced toward Gaul and on Tours, "the holy town of Gaul": in October 732, , the army of the Umayyad Caliphate led by Al Ghafiqi met Frankish and Burgundian forces under Charles in an area between the cities of Tours and Poitiers (...), leading to a decisive, historically important Frankish victory known as the Battle of Tours (...), ending the "last of the great Arab invasions of France", a military victory termed "brilliant" on the part of Charles."

Had this Battle of Tours, very important in the Frankish History because of the victory of Charles Martel, a different result, it's certain to say Christianity would be all converted to Arabs and fall into their domain. As we can understand it better below:

"The Battle of Tours (...) was fought on October 10, 732 between forces under the Frankish leader Charles Martel and a massive invading Islamic army led by Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman, near the city of Tours, France. During the battle, the Franks defeated the Islamic army and Emir Abd er Rahman was killed. This battle stopped northward advance of Islam from the Iberian peninsula, and is considered by most historians to be of macrohistorical importance, in that it haltd the Islamic conquests, and preserved Christianity as the controlling faith in Europe, during a period in which Islam was overruning the remains of the old Roman and Persian Empires."

There are estimatives that the Frankish army defending Gaul were between 15,000 and 75,000; whilst the Muslims had around 60,000 and 400,00 in cavalry, though these numbers can be lesser than it is thought. Whatever the certain number is, what is commonly believed by most accounts is that the entire Muslim army was present at the Battle. 

After the victory at the Battle of Tours was granted on the Franks' side, Charles turned against "fellow Christian realms, establishing Frankish control over Bavaria, Alemannia, and Frisia, and compelling some of the Saxon tribes to offer tribute."

In his personal life, there is little to be known, except that he was possibly married twice. The first to a noblewoman named Rotrude of Treves with whom he had five children before her death in 724: Hiltrude, Carloman, Landrade, Auda, and Pippin the Younger. After Rotrude's death, he was married to Swanhild, with whom he had a son Grifo. It's also said that he had some mistresses, named Ruodhaid, who produced four children: Bernard, Hieronymus, Remigius, and Ian.

In general words, we understand the political aspects of Charles Martel as Mayor, Prince and Duke of Franks as the emerging of a realm more unified and a monarchy more centralized, modelling the characteristics that would shape politics later better developed in the reigns of Hugh Capet, Philippe IV and Louis XII. "The responsibilities of the knights of court, and so in the development of the Frankish system of feudalism" were also observed throughout the period of Charles Martel as main governor of Francia, being its sovereign in all but name. Lastly,

"from 737 until his death in 741, Charles focused on the administration of his realm and expanding his influence. This included subduing Burgundy in 739. These years also saw Charles lay the groundwork for his heirs' sucession following his death. When he died on October 22, 741, his lands were divided between his sons Carloman and Pippin III. The latter would father the next Carolingian leader, Charlemagne. Charles' remains were interred at the Basilica of St Denis near Paris."

The strong administration that marked his reign would be followed by Pepin, who, at first, reigned together with his brother Carloman, but once he sought a religious life to live, becoming a monk, Pepin solely ruled as Pepin III. As the son that would succeeded him in turn, Pepin continued to spread his father's legacy in what France would later be.

Bibliography:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Martel

https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-i-ancient-civilizations-enlightenment-textbook/the-middle-ages-in-europe-9/the-carolingian-dynasty-45/charles-martel-and-pepin-the-short-974-17581/

http://study.com/academy/lesson/charles-martel-biography-battle-of-tours.html

http://www.heritage-history.com/index.php?c=academy&s=char-dir&f=martel

http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03629a.htm

http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/tours.html

http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/battleswarsto1000/p/tours.htm

https://themuslimissue.wordpress.com/2014/10/31/remembering-the-crusaders-charles-the-hammer-martel-the-hero-of-the-age/

http://www.authorama.com/famous-men-of-the-middle-ages-11.html

William de Warenne: The Lion of Scotland (1143-1214)

We begin the last month of the year with William of the House of Dunkeld, first of his name to rule over Scotland from 1143 until his death in 1214. He, who was known as the lion of the Scots after his life, was a contemporary of another lion: the king of England, Henry II, and his sons, Richard I and John. Perhaps if he was not a contemporary of the Plantagenets, the Angevin Emperors, William I of Scotland would be luckier? A question we might never get the answer. 

William, who received the nickname "the Lion" after his death because of his association in using a lion in his flag and preferred to be identified as "William de Warenne", was born circa 1143 as the second son of Henry of Scotland, Earl of Huntingdon, son of King David I of Scotland, and Ada de Warenne. We've had no access to William's education, and what we know of him is after 1165, the year he succeeded his older brother Malcolm IV as King of Scotland and crowned at Scone Abbey on 24 December that same year. In comparison to his late brother, William was:

"powerfully built, redheaded and headstrong. He was an effective monarch whose reign was marred by his ill-fated attemps to regain control of Northumbria from the Normans."

From the beginning, as we can perceive from the quote above, William attempted to regain the earldom of Northumbria that his brother Malcolm IV was forced to give to Henry II of England under the threat of invasion. This would be a point of William's reign where he had based many of his decisions in taking the earldom back, probably because he looked back at the reign of his grandfather, David I. But, in reality, David of Dunkeld was only lord of half of the English lands because he took advantage from the Civil War between Matilda and Stephen.

Nonetheless, the refusal of Henry II in giving William the earldom leaded to the complications of the Anglo-Scottish relations. Where government is concerned, William was energetic and stubborn. In one of his -almost- constant conflicts with England, he is support to have:

"(...) recklessly charged the English troops himself, shouting: "Now we shall see which of us are good knights!". He was unhorsed and captured by Henry's troops led by Ranulf de Glanvill and taken in chains to Newcastle, then Northampton, and then transferred to Falaise in Normandy. Henry then sent an army to Scotland and occupied it. As ransom and to regain his kingdom, William had to acknowledge Henry as his feudal superior and agree to pay for the cost of English army's occupation of Scotland by taxing the Scots. The church of Scotland was also subjected to that of England. This he did by signing the Treaty of Falaise. He was then allowed to return to Scotland. In 1175, he swore fealty to Henry II at York Castle."

As a result of the signing of this Treaty, Henry II chose William I a wife, this being a great-granddaughter of King Henry I of England. Her name was Ermengarde de Beaumont, with whom he had four children, Alexander II and three girls who were married into English aristocracy. By the time they were married, William was in his 40's and, despite having sired a few illegitimate children with two mistresses -or more-, he remained faithful to Ermengarde. They were married thus at Woodstock Palace, Oxfordshire. His faithfulness might be explained based on his fondness of the Norman chilvaric culture that was a trending back then: in fact, he had brought to his court constantly young knights, with great festivities and tournments. William also did not speak Gaelic or English, but French instead. It is also why he used his maternal surname, for he felt more connected with his Norman connections than to those of his father's. 

However, to many Scots this treaty represented one of its worst ways of humiliations so, consequently, revolts broke out. One of them came from the descendants of Duncan II, but it was severely repressed, and eventually agreements were dealt in order to favour both parts. Relations with England were marked by these tensions caused by the ambitions of the monarchs from both countries. Yet, where William is concerned, we must remember that he:

"(...) had an agressive personality- ambitious, headstrong and driven by an obsessive crusade to recover the earldom of Northumberland, which Malcolm had been forced to concede to Henry II in 1157. It would prove to be the driving force of his long reign and not surprisingly a cause of tension with Henry II. After persistently failing to persuade Henry to just give it back, William angered him further by making overtures to his great rival, Louis VII of France. Impressively, William was responsible for a legendary display of Plantagenet rage on Henry's part:

"On a certain day when King Henry was at Caen, and was eagerly conducting the affair that he had with the king of Scotland, he broke out in insulting language against Richard de Hamez, who seemed to be speaking to some extent in the king of Scotland's favour. And the king, roused to his usual fury, flung his cap from his head, put off his belt, threw far from him the mantle and clothes that he had on: removed with his own hands the silken coverlet that was over the couch: and, sitting as it were in a manure-heap, began to chew the stalks of straw." [John of Salisbury to Thomas Becket]

When Henry II was succeeded by his oldest surviving son, Richard I, Anglo-Scottish relations were hardly improved, with Richard refusing the earldom to William. He, however, did not support John's rebellion against Richard and when John became king, with the continue decline of having the earldom restaured, William threatened to support Arthur of Brittany's claims to the English crown, Despite the constant tensions and threatenings from both sides, William would never get the earldom he so desired.

Nonetheless, though his reign was mainly marked by tensions with Scottish earls and English kings, it must be remembered that it was under William's reign that the famous Auld Alliance with France was established. Considering also Scotland as a whole country, economy was satisfying and relations with the Church were good also, with the Pope claiming that the Church of Scotland was a "favourite daughter" of Rome. In other words:

"He [William] threw himself into government with energy and diligently followed the lines laid down by his grandfather, David I. Anglo-French settlements and feudalization were extended, new burghs founded, criminal law clarified, the responsibilities of justices and sheriffs widened, and trade grew. Arbroath Abbey was founded (1178), and the bishopric of Argyll established (c.1192) in the same year as papal confirmation of the Scottish church by Pope Celestine III."

Also:

"William's long reign was an important one for the growing nation state in Scotland. John of Fordun's moniker of 'the lion of justice' is perhaps a little strong, but royal justice was now spreading further over Scotland and with more central control than ever before. William himself  presided over cases and Scottish law codes tended to match the law codes coming out of England, where Henry II was introducing major reforms. William also oversaw improvements to Scotland's economy, fouding various new burghs (i.e market towns), levying customs duties at seaports and overseeing a transition to a money economy (rather than just bartering goods) thanks to a significant improvement in Scottish mints, which were now equal in value to English coins and so viable abroad."

It is said, according to a legend, that in 1206 he cured a case of a child with scrofula by the touch of his hands whilst blessing the child. Six years later, in December 12th, William died, at Stirling Castle. He would be buried at Arbroath Abbey, which was founded by him to honour, some say, Thomas Beckett, and was succeded by his only son Alexander II, who reigned in Scotland from 1214 until his own death in 1249.

Bibliography:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_the_Lion

http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/dunkeld_9.htm

https://rexfactor.wordpress.com/2016/07/26/william-the-lion-1165-1214/

http://www.timeref.com/people/hpr383.htm

https://thehistoryjar.com/tag/william-the-lion/

http://www.euppublishing.com/doi/abs/10.3366/E0036924109000869

http://www.unofficialroyalty.com/william-i-king-of-scots-the-lion/

http://www.scottish-history.com/origins5.shtml