Sejong The Great: The Story Of The Illustrous King Of Korea (1397-1450)

The intention of this post is to discuss the implications of Sejong's government to Korea in order to comprehend the extent of what is regarded to have been an illustrous reign. We bear in mind the differences in culture, political and religious aspects that differ from Western Europe in what studious today nominate as being a medieval period. We thus ask ourselves who was King Sejong as a monarch and an individual? Did he leave a legacy to the point where he's earned the nickname 'the Great'? Motivated by his relationship as the head of a society that to us is unknown in majority, whether in cultural differences that in our days is quite in evidence, whether in differences that too reflect in the past, we bring this character to the common public eye.

Sejong was born on 7 May 1397, under the name of Yi Do. His parents were King Taejong and Queen Wongyeong. His grandfather had been the first of a new dynasty, but he'd abdicated on behalf of his oldest son in an attempt to prevent his other male children claimed his throne. The dispute, however, would only end with Sejong's uncle being exiled and killed. Eventually, his father became king, but he too would abdicate in favour of his third son after removing his eldest, Prince Yangnyeong, from succession, apparently from spending too much time in leisure and hunting activities than performing duties expected to the crown prince. Taejong's second son became monk, thus the path to the throne was clear for Sejong, who was, apparently, his father's favourite due to his excellence in his studies. But it's very likely that, due to the dispute between brothers that resulted in Taejong's ascension as king of Korea, Serjon's brothers were more than willing in not repeating the history.

Upon Serjon's ascension, we are told that:

"In August 1418, Taejong abdicated in favour of Sejong. However, even in retirement Taejong continued to influence government policy. Sejong's surprising political savvy and creativity did not become apparent until after Taejong's death in 1422."

Also,

"Sejong was a quick study, and also loved science and technology, so he introduced a number of organizational and technological improvements to his kingdom's military forces. Although gunpowder had been used for centuries in Korea, its employment in advanced weaponry expanded markedly under Sejong. He supported the development of new types of cannons and mortars, as well as rocket-like 'fire arrows' [...]."

Within the military field, Sejong was responsible for what is known the Gihae Eastern Expedition to the Korean seas of the east cost. Its purpose consisted in defeating japanese pirates (also named wako) who "operated out of Tsushima Island, harrying shipping, stealing trade goods, and kidnapping Korean and Chinese subjects." These pirates were defeated, and it's said that Sejong's troops killed circa 150 of them, rescuing Chinese and Koreans victims. As a result,

"This expedition would bear important fruit later in Sejong's reign, as well. In 1443, the daimyo of Tsushima pledged obedience to the King of Joseon Korea in the Treaty of Gyehae, in exchange for which he received preferential trading rights with the Korean mainland."

Where domestic affairs are concern, we know that Sejong had one queen, named Soheon who came from a clan entitled as Shim. They would have ten children, eight of whom were of the male sex and two of the female sex.

"He also had three Royal Noble Consorts, Consort Hye, Consort Yeong, and Consort Shin, who bore him three sons, one son and six sons, respectively. In addition, Sejong ad seven lesser consorts who had the misfortune of never producing sons. 

Nevertheless, the presence of eighteen princes representing different clans on their mother's sides ensured that in the future, the succession would be contentious. As a Confucian scholar, though, King Sejong followed protocol and named his sickly eldest son Munjong as Crown Prince."

Our interest is, however, in the field of knowledge and social care where we can find the doings of our king. It has been said that Sejong had an interest in science, technology and culture. How interesting it is to observe that:

"[...] he encouraged the improvement of a moveable metal type for printing first-used in Korea by 1234, at least 215 years before Gutenberg, as well as the development of the sturdier mulberry-fibert paper. These measures made better-quality books much more widely available among educated Koreans. Among the books Sejong sponsored were a history of the Goryeo Kingdom, a compilation of filial deeds (model actions for followers of Confucius to emulate), and farming guides meant to help farmers improve production."

He was also responsible for bringing:

"[...] a group of scholar-officials to study and do research in the Hall of Worthies. They published works in history, language, law, music, astronomy, and medicine. Because Sejong also encouraged the development of typecasting and printing from copper plates, Korean presses could publish the scholars' work. The king sometimes rewarded craftsmen working on new technology by sending them gifts of extra wine and food."

Sejon was reportedly said that "the people are the root of the state, and food is an indispensable necessity of the people". His concern to his subjects are seen in many areas, as we began to point out in paragraphs above, but curiously on the next one we see it in agriculture.

"Throughout his reign, he took a hand in improving agriculture through science and technology. In 1429, he issued a practical farm manual called 'Straight Talk on Farming', which gave advice about planting and plowing techniques. He personally carred out experiments with growing better grain harvests. To help farmers avoid droughts, Sejong had his scholars devise a rain gauge to measure rainfall accurately; it was so advanced that modern rain gauges are much like it."

Other interests financed by him included 'unusually accurate water clocks, and maps of the stars and celestial globes'. He was also patron of music, encouraging musicians to "improve the designs of various musical instruments". However, amongst all of those cultural achievements, no other held a major importance than inventing Korean alphabet. After all, in those days, Koreans spoke their language, but upon writing, they wrote Chinese instead. He is reportedly having said that:

"The sounds of our language differ from those of Chinese and are not easily communicated by using Chinese graphs. Many among the ignorant, therefore, though they wish to express their sentiments in writing, have been unable to communicate. I wish only that the people will learn them easily and use them conveniently in their daily life."

His main concern with the illiterate mass found opposition from nobility, as his court was not willing to break influences from the empire of China. But let's recollect how Sejong did so by supporting scholars from the beginning. He stablished the Hall of Worthies, where a select group of intellectuals studied not only "ancient laws and rites of China and previous Korean dynasties", but "compiled historical texts, and lectured the king and crown prince on Confucian classics."

Such scholars were also sent by Sejong:

"to a mountain temple where they were allowed to read books on a vast array of subjects including astronomy, medicine, geography, history, the art of war, and religion. Many of the Worthies objected to this expansive menu of options, believing that a study of Confuncian thought was sufficient, but Sejong preferred to have a scholar class with a wide range of knowledge."

Upon selecting about eight advisers,

"Sejon [...] developed an alphabetic system to represent Korean language sounds and sentence structure accurately. They came up with a simple system of 14 consonants and 10 vowels, which can be arranged in clusters to create all of the sounds in spoken Korean."

As a result, despite the already mentioned opposition he faced, "hangul quickly spread among segments of the population who previously had not had access to enough education to learn the complicated Chinese writing system." Education was, thus, held with a very important regard by Sejong, who valued knolwedge in all its forms, whether being in astronomy, music, poetry, agronomy, astrology or even in scholars. There is a reputedly saying which states "that a wise man can master hangul by lunchtime, and a less wise man can master it in ten days."

We can thus say that:

"His motivation to grant his people the power to express themselves and communicate, reflects his heart of a king to his people, which at times reflected that of a father more than a governor. In many ways, King Sejong reflects the extended family culture embedded in the Korean heritage."

And:

"He implemented major legal reforms, including a new tax system that was implemented based on a public opinion poll. He supported scientific and cultural advancement, expanding access to education and developing techniques to improve the productivity of farmers. He also stabilized his nation and region."

If it was possible to characterize him as an "enlighted" monarch, we would, but such concept --western in essence--only came within a particular context in 18th century. Even so, if we compare him to other monarchs of his days, would we find similar aspects? Nonetheless, we must not forget that wars were not excluded from his politics as we have seen in the beginning. It is a shame that, however, he's only remembered by inventing Korean alphabet --a great accomplishment, nevertheless, but one that does not limit all that knowledge that Sejong spread to other segments of the society he was part of.

It appears that the king, towards the end of his life, suffered from diabetes, amongst other health issues. He was blinded at the age of 50 and died three years later, on 18 May 1450, 53 years of age. His sickly son inherited the crown, but did not survive too long. However, Munjong left a son, who became king Danjong. But Danjong was, in turn, a minor with two scholar-officials left to act as his regents. To short the story, Danjong was eventually usurped by his uncle, King Sejong's second son,  Sejo, and was eventually killed by him. And so another violent circle thus began...

Bibliography:

-https://www.thoughtco.com/king-sejong-the-great-of-korea-195723

-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejong_the_Great

-https://www.hyunjinmoon.com/king-sejongs-legacy-and-the-dream-of-one-korea-remembered-on-hangul-day/#.W802HWhKjIU

-https://www.bxscience.edu/ourpages/auto/2010/3/7/50951204/Ch%2013-3%20King%20Sejong%20and%20Korea.pdf

Xuanye, Kangxi Emperor Of China: The Story Of The Remarkable Ruler Of The Qing Dynasty (1654-1722)

To keep track of the legacies left by Eastern monarchies in different times and spaces, we bring you today this formidable character that was reigned over the empire of China during the late 17th century until the first decades of the 18th century. Who was Kangxi, Emperor of China and what can we learn of his reign?

Kangxi was actually named Xuanye. He was born on 4 May 1654 in Jigren Palace, located at the Forbidden City. His parents was Shunzhi Emperor and Xiaokangzhang Empress, the first monarchs of a new dynasty to be established at China, the Qing dynasty. When Xuanye became emperor upon the death of his father, aged 23, probably of smallpox, he was a minor between 6 and 7 years of age. Therefore, his father left four men of his trust to govern the regency until Xuanye was of age. When Xuanye became emperor de facto later on, he would choose his reign name, Kangxi, whose meaning was 'Peaceful Harmony'.

As mentioned, there was a group of regency, composed by Sonin, Suksaha, Ebilun and Oboin. At first, they managed to resolve old pendences from previous reigns as we see below:

"One of the first political acts of the four imperial advisers was to replace the so-called Thirteen Offices (Shisan Yanmen) with a Neiwufu (Dorgi Yamun), or Office of Household. The Thirteen Offices, all organized solely by Chinese eunuchs, had been the abomination of the Manchus ever since they had been introduced by the late emperor, to handle affairs of the imperial household, patterned after an elaborate model that had existed under the preceding dynasty--the Chinese Ming. Now the private sector sector of the emperor's life would be run by his personal Manchu bond servants who staffed the newly created Office of Household. Thus, the Qing rulers successfully prevented court eunuchs from meddling with politics, in sharp contrast to many other dynasties, the Ming in particular, that had reccurently let eunuchs gain access to actual power, often with disastrous results."

However, when Sonin died, the apparent pacific scenario had changed to a struggle for power: Oboin took the reins of the regency and assumed what many consider to had been a dictatorship. He forged crimes to have Suksha executed for treason before submitting Ebilun to his authority. This would not last long, though: Kangxi, who had been raised by his grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang, had her help to destitute both Ebilun and Oboin from their charges, having them suffering the penalty for treason: death. At the age of 14, Kangxi thus began to govern the empire by himself.

"He listed three issues of concern: flood control of the Yellow River; repair of the Grand Canal; the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in south China. The Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688."

It was with the particular matter of the three feudatories that firstly occupied Kangxi's thoughts. These were three kings (named Wu Sangui of Yunnan, Shang Kexi of Guangdong, and Geng Jimao of Fujan) who were powerful warlords and held their force in their lands when Kangxi's father conquered China in 1644. Therefore, this revolt:

"[...] broke out in 1673 when Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as Wang Fuchen. The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including Zhou Peigong and Tuhai to suppress the rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681."

In addition to this,

"The Kangxi Emperor continued using the traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle."

Where internation relations are concerned, Kangxi was responsible for invading Taiwan, where there were still present loyalists to the former Ming dinasty. In a naval battle, circa of "300-odd ships under the Qing admiral Shi Lang" defeated the enemies in Penghu. The result of the conquest can be seen in the following paragraph:

"The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China, where they spent the rest of their lives. The Prince of Ningjing and his five concubines, however, committed suicide rather than submite to capture. Their palace was used as Shi Lang's headquarters in 1683, but he memorialized the emperor to convert it into a Mazu temple as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the Grand Matsu Temple the next year and, honoring the goddess Mazu for her supposed assistance during the Qing invasion, promoted her to 'Empress of Heaven' (Tianhou) from her previous status as a 'heavenly consort' (tianfei)."

There was still a few more conflicts that Kangxi dealt with: one of which concerns the relations with Inner Mongols, whose leader Ligdan Khan opposed the new dynasty Qing. Evenutally, however, Ligdan's son, Ejei, chose a more diplomatic path and was granted the title of Prince (Qin Wang) instead.

But what does interest us here is Kangxi's domestic affairs, mostly inside the Chinese culture, whose influence is still perceptible to our days. It is at least intriguing to see the role that mathematics played on it. In his article entitled "Cartography During The Times Of The Kangxi Emperor: The Age And The Background", author Han Qi tells us how straight were relations between West and East under Kangxi's government and the extent of interest towards sciences, astronomy and, as mentioned formerly, mathematics.

"Many of the Catholic missionaries were talented and competent in various fields of science. They gained Kangxi's confidence and were entrusted by him with the task of cartographic surveys. On 14 November 1685, the Belgian Jesuit Antoine Thomas (1644-1709) shortly after his arrival in Beijing wrote a letter to Europe in which he mentioned that Emperor Kangxi requested that a map be drawn of the Tartar region. In 1678 Verbiest wrote a letter to Europe, appealing for more Jesuits to be sent to China to preach the Catholic faith. In response to Verbiest's open letter, King Louis XIV responded positively. Under the guidance of the French Royal Academy of Sciences, the Society of Jesus in France sent off Jesuits as 'King's Mathematicians' to China. [...] Through Verbiest's meditation, the Ministry of Rites submitted the following to the emperor for the decision: 'Of Hong Ruo's [Jean de Fontaney]'s party of five it is not yet known if they include experts in calendar studies. The group will be brought to Beijing pending assignments; and those who are not called upon may stay if they wish.'" (QI: 2014, p 5,6) 

In his other article, "Knowledge and power: A social history of the transmission of mathematics between China and Europe during the Kangxi reign (1662–1722)", same author explains that:

"The aims of the Jesuits in China were, of course, primarily missionary, and from the beginning they used science merely as a means of arousing Chinese scholars’ interest in Christianity. However, their influence in China was to prove effective mostly in the field of science itself. In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, they played a leading role in the transmission of mathematical knowledge between China and Europe."(QI: p 1)

They would come, specially:

"In response to Verbiest’s urgent appeal of 1678, Jean de Fontaney (1643-1710), Joachim Bouvet, J.F. Gerbillon (1654-1707) and other two Jesuits came to Beijing. Sent by Louis XIV as “the King’s Mathematicians”, they were expected to glorify the French King, propagate Christian doctrines, benefit science and arts, and thereby reduce Portuguese sea power in East Asia. They were also charged with making astronomical observations, investigating native Chinese flora and fauna, and learning other technical arts" (QI: p3)

This attempt of christianize China through science would continue with other results. For now, we are enlighting those in Kangxi's government. As we see next:

"Kangxi’s actions also had a political motive, as the lecture and demonstration provided him an opportunity to show his “genius” in front of his ministers and challenge Chinese officials’ presumptions about the superiority of their cultural and mathematical learning. His success in this court session of 1692 had resulted from more than two years of systematic study. The Jesuits had given Kangxi access to “new knowledge” from Europe, and thereby provided him with the basis for his memorable “performance.” On several other occasions, Kangxi also used his newly acquired skills to put the Confucian elite in their place, even in 1702 publicly criticizing Chinese scholars as completely ignorant of mathematics". (QI: p 4)

Kangxi was also responsible for a "dictionary of Chinese characters, which became known as the Kangxi Dictionary", which was also a political measure to undermine the resistance coming from scholars who were still loyal the Ming dinasty. He also ordered a "compilation of Tang poetry, the Quantangshi". 

But it was another compilation that would prove to be more fruitful to China, and this would be, as Han Qi points out:

"The compilation of a compendium of astronomical, mathematical and musical texts, entitled The Origin of pitchpipes and calendar (律历渊源), was one of its main goals. This imperially composed work comprises three parts:Basic Mathematical Principles (数理精蕴), Imperially composed calendar (钦若历书, later called Compendium of the calendar, 历象考成), and the Exact meaning of pitchpipes (律吕正义). In addition, many astronomical observations were made by members of this academy in order to collect data to be used for various problems, most notably, the obliquity of the ecliptic. Based on their observations, Chinese mathematicians corrected some astronomical data and completed the compilation of the Imperially composed calendar (printed in about 1722). After the Academy of Mathematics was established, the Kangxi Emperor worked as a mathematics tutor, at times even teaching some of the young students.[...]" (QI: p5)

Relations between Christianity and Kangxi would deteriorate, eventually, when Pope Clement XII determined that worshipping ancestrals was a sort of idolatry and Kangxi took this as a deep offense against him. After all,

"As a Manchu monarch, he had from childhood followed the Manchu traditions of archery and horse-riding. At the same time he received a good education in the traditional Confucian classics from his high officials. And, he played an essential role in the transmission of Western mathematics to China. (QI: p1)

And it must not be forgotten that, despite Kangxi not being very close to the Chinese people specially in some culture terms, he was more than willing to embrace Confucian properly. To deny that in favour of Christianism was too much for him. This thus close the tolerance for Christanity that the Jesuits were pleading ever since the first beginning of the emperor's reign.

In spite of this,

"From 1711 to 1723, Matteo Ripa, an Italian priest sent to China by the Congregration for the Evangelization of Peoples, worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Qing court. In 1723, he returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to groom them to become priests and send back to China as missionaries. This marked the beginning of the Collegio dei Cinesi, sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the propagation of Christianity in China. This Chinese Institute was the first school of Sinology in Europe, which would later develop to become the Istituto Orientale and the present day Naples Eastern University."

Curious to perceive as well it's that:

"The Kangxi Emperor was also the first Chinese emperor to play a western musical instrument. He employed Karel Slavicek as court musician. Slavicek was playing Spinet; later the emperor would play on it himself." 

Aside of music, sciences and astronomy, the Jesuits left too a military legacy under Kangxi's government. They were the responsibles for introducing of gun manufacturing and artillery, both resulting in the conquest of the kingdom of Tungning laterwards.

Towards the end of Kangxi's life, we are brought to the inheritance issue. Who would be the next emperor? Having produced at least 17 princes, Kangxi was at first favourable to his second eldest, Yinreng, son of his first consort, Xiaochengren, but whom would prove to be a disappointment. It is said that, despite the good education he receives, the crown prince:

"[...] was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his father's concubines, which was deemed incest and a capital offense. Yinreng also purchased young children from Jiangsu to satisfy his pedophiliac pleasure. In addition, Yinreng's supporters, led by Songgotu, gradually fromed a 'Crown Prince Party' (...) that aimed to help Yinreng get the throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods."

Despite the initial toleration towards his son's behavior, the emperor eventually placed him under house arrest. A few other princes supported Yinreng, amongst which Kangxi's first-born, but it came to nothing. There had been much talk about whom the sovereign would choose as his successor, but this was kept in secret until his death in 1722. It is said that:

"In the evening of 20 December 1722 before his death, the Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons to assemble at his bedside. They were the third, fourth, eighth, ninth, 16th and 17th princes. After the Kangxi Emperor died, Longkodo announced that the emperor had selected the fourth prince, Yinzhen, as the new emperor. Yinzhen ascended to the throne and became known as the Yongzheng Emperor. The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs in Zunhua, Hebel."

It is even amazing to point out that Kangxi, née Xuanye, was the emperor who reigned for the most time before and after his dynasty was settled in China. The quote below is claimed to have been his, said during his lifetime:

"What man am I, that among all those who have reigned... it should be I who reigned the longest?"

Having been described as 'fairly tall and well proportioned, he loved all manly exercises and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with smallpox', Kangxi was a highly educated man of his own days and sought to balance conquest and military successes to justice and peace equally. But what remains the most surprising is his dialogue with Jesuits that produced a great academic deal of astronomy, music, the learning he was so fond of, even tutoring his court in mathematics, a subject he was very passionated about. He also "commissioned numerous compilations of records, maps, histories, and literature as well as encyclopedic works like the Kangxi Dictionary", leaving so much more to be learned, studied and here brought to further discussion so that his legacy is not forgotten by us.

Bibliography:

-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangxi_Emperor

-https://www.britannica.com/biography/Kangxi

-http://www.shenyun.com/learn/article/read/item/Q9CcRzXxH7A/emperor-kangxi-aobai-manchurian-qing-dynasty.html

QI, Han. Cartography During The Times Of The Kangxi Emperor: The Age And The Background. "Jesuit Mapmaking in China: D'Anville's Nouvelle Atlas de La Chine (1737)". Edited by Roberto M. Ribeiro with John W. O'Malley, SJ. Saint Joseph's University Press. Philadelphia. 2014.

QI, Han. "Knowledge and power: A social history of the transmission of mathematics between China and Europe during the Kangxi reign (1662–1722)". Year uncertain (2010 or 2014)