King Henry IV of France (1553-1610): The Story Of Le Bon Roi Henri, First Bourbon Of The Capetian Dynasty To Rule France and Navarre

Few were the kings who displayed not only great charisma amongst the citizens of the countries they ruled but were also capable to keep a good opinion of their reigns for a good while like Henry IV of France did even until the days of our contemporarity. The grandfather of the most well known of all French monarchs, Louis XIV, Henry IV was controversial amongst his noble contemparts, seen as traitor by the Protestants and an usurper by  the Catholics. And although he sadly had his life taken by an extreme Catholic monk, Henry earned the nickname le bon roi Henri (which in English means the good king Henry) by his subjects and throughout his reign he showed great concern by them. And today we will have a topic about this impressive royal character.

Henry of Navarre (French: Henri de Navarre) was born on the 13th or 14th day of December, 1553, at the chateau of Pau, in Béarn. He was the oldest child of the Queen of Navarre, Jeanne d'Albret and her husband, Antoine de Bourbon, duke of Vêndome and her consort. He had a younger sister, named Catherine. In his childhood, his education was firstly supervised by Henri d'Albret, King of Navarre, who was his grandfather and a brother-in-law of François I of France, before being replaced by Henry's mother, when she suceeded him on the throne of Navarre as Queen Jeanne d'Albret. That being said, it is said that:

 "his formal education from Pierre Victor Palma-Cayet and François de La Gaucherie, who reinforced his Calvinist upbringing in what was otherwise a typical Reinassance curriculum that combined book learning with training in horsemanship and the handling of arms."

Henry was also:

"trained in physicial as well as intellectual disciplines, and his later career showed the results of both aspects of his early life. His physical endurance and vigor were matched by a quick and tolerant mind; his skill as a soldier matched by his diplomatic and political astuteness in the course of his reign."

Other than that, there's not much about his childhood, except that, though he was baptised Catholic, he was raised a Calvinist and his education, as said before, was a proof of this. In his youth, Henry joined the Huguenots (French Protestants who followed Calvin's ideas) in the several battles of the Wars of Religion that would still cuminate in France for some long time. In June 9th, 1572, his mother Jeanne d'Albret, who declared Calvinism the official religion of Navarre after a long struggle against France under the regency of Catherine de' Médici, died and Henry ascended as Henri III de Navarre. Between the time of his mother's death and his ascending as sovereign of Navarre, it was arranged a marriage between Henry and Marguerite de Valois, sister of Henry III of France, and daughter of Henry II with his italian consort. 

Despite the apparently efforts of both parts in marrying their children so peace could be brought to former enemies parties, that is, Catholics and Protestants, this match would prove to be a disaster as we can see in the next paragraph:

"The wedding took place in Paris on 18 August 1572 on the parvis of Notre Dame Cathedral. On 24 August, the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre began in Paris. Several thousand Protestants who had come to Paris for Henry's wedding were killed, as well as thousands more throughtout the country in the days that followed. Henry narrowly escaped death thanks to the help of his wife and his promise to convert to Catholicism. He was made to live at the court of France, but he escpaed in early 1576."

As he escaped back to Navarre, where he would spend quite some time away from his stranged wife, popular known as la reine Margot, he also broke his promise of converting and again were at odds with Catholics. Nonetheless, situation in France seemed to change dramatically upon the death of the youngest brother of King Henry III of France, the duke of Alençon, Hercule François, known as François. Henry of Navarre was thus made the heir of the French crown because he was a directly descendant of the pious King Louis IX, but this decision led to another stage of the Wars of Religion:

"Henry's status (...) changed when, according to the Salic law of succession, he became heir presumptive to the French throne as a result of the death on 10 June 1584 of Francis, Duke of Alençon (1555-1584). The specter of a Huguenot sucession caused a clash between the rules governing a hereditary succession and the monarchy's long and close affiliation with Catholicism. As a result, the question of Henry of Navarre's confessional allegiances became the central issue of the day. Militan Catholics rallied to the Holy League revived in 1584 by Henry of Lorraine, duke of Guise (1550-15589), especially after Pope Sixtus V (ruled 1585-1590) excommunicated Navarre the next year. The inability of Henry III (ruled 1574-1589) to maintain order following this humiliating expulsion from Paris on the Day of the Barricades (12 May 1588) culminated in his calamitous decision on 24 December 1588 to order the murders of Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis, the cardinal of Guise. "

This decision, in the middle of the event that was later regarded as the War of the Three Henrys, proved to be a very impopular one. The French subjects did not receive well to the news and unfortunately for Henry, he was murdered by a fanatical monk on 1 August 1589. As a result of this, the king of Navarre was now also the king of France, except he was now Henri le Quatre (English: Henry the Fourth). But his rise to the throne did not bring peace as expected. Catholics remained a problem for Henry IV, and he was forced to deal with rebellions for at least five years before he agreed to convert to Catholicism, in an act that frustrated his Protestant allies like Queen Elizabeth I of England. 

This resolution, some say, was possibly heavily influenced by his Catholic mistress Gabrielle d'Estrées, whom he adored and cherished, and with whom he fathered three sons already; and also from his most trusted ally, a Protestant man named Maximilien de Béthun, baron of Rosny and duke of Sully. However, "the famous phrase 'Paris is worth a mass' actually came from Catholics who wanted to impugn the sincerity of Henry IV's conversion." In 1594, Henry was thus crowned following Catholic rites and in the next year he received a papal bulle from Pope Clement VIII confirming his conversion and "bestowing a papal absolution upon him".

It was not until the success of his entrance in Paris that Henry IV managed to rule properly. He had inherited a country devastated by the years of civil wars, with cities in ruins and several castles destroyed, also affected by plagues and a very broken economy. It is supposed he declared the following quote: "I tell you that at the time God called me for this crown, I found France not merely in a sate of ruin, but nearly lost for Frenchmen." So one of his measures concerned introduced:

"a ministerial style of government that restricted the judicial prerogatives, claimed by the parlements and provincial privileges claimed by local representative assembles. In 1604, Henry IV regularized the heritable nature of venal offices by the payment of a special fee known as the Paulette. He also cultivated close relations with the old nobility by showering them with pensions and titles: those aristocrats who conspired against him felt his full wrath, however, as demonstrated by the execution of Charles, duke of Biron (1562-1602). Henry also encouraged the beginnings of Catholic reform among both churchmen and the lay public, working hard at the same time to uphold the protections recently granted to the Huguenots. On the economic front, the king entrusted to Barthélemy de Laffemas (1545-1611) the execution of innovative measures to restore commerce and living standards--a campaign reflected in the contemporary slogan of a 'chicken in every pot' (la poule an pot)"

He also relied in his privy council, in French called "Conseil des Affaires", which was consulted daily by Henry IV every day and it was also composed by six men. He also depended on written instructions, and on intendants who "were once again used to bring royal authority to the provinces". The apogee of his reign, though, was the Edict of Nantes, in 1598, which was aimed to provide not only an end between the rivalries of Catholics and Protestants, but also to give the Huguentos freedom in practicing their religion, assuring they could do so in public, aside of other important factors. 

"Signed by Henry IV of France at Nantes on April 13th, 1598, the edict put a temporary end to the ferocious religious wars between Roman Catholics and Protestants which had torn France apart since the 1560's. (...) After a skilful persuasion by Catholic diplomats and much hard bargaining, they [the Huguenots] accepted a document of ninety-two articles granting them a measure of religious toleration as well as social and political equality. Huguenots were to be entitled to worship freely everywhere in France in private, and publicly in some 200 named towns and on the estates of Protestant landowners. They were permitted to inherit property, engage in trade, attend all schools and universities, and be treated in hospitals on the same basis as everyone else. There was a full amnesty for crimes committed during the wars by both sides and in secret articles, signed on May 2nd, the government agreed to pay the Protestant pastors and subsidise the garrisons of some fifty Huguenot fortified towns."

And although this worked perfectly well on the reign of Henry IV and afterwards on the reign of his son, the edict would be ratified by his grandson Louis XIV. Unlike some of his predecessors, much of what Henry IV did aimed to reach all classes, which explains why his popularity remained intact even when the French Revolution exploded in the end of the 18th century. He supposedly said, in Ordinance of Blois, in 1599, in respect for the draining of mashlan that:

"The power and wealth of kings and sovereign princes consists in the opulence and number of their subjects. And the great and legitimate gain and revenue of people...proceeds essentially from their laboring and cultivation of the land which gives them in return, so pleases God, the fruit of their labor, by producing great quantities of wheat, wine, grains, vegetables and pasture land; sufficient not only to live in comfort, but to entertain traffic and commerce with our neighbors and distant countries."

The same year of the edict of Nantes also came to an end the war with Spain by the signing of the Treaty of Vervins. And in 1599, his marriage to Marguerite de Valois was finally annulled, so the path to marry his lover, though strongly advised in not doing so by his counsellors, was free. However, Gabrielle d'Éstrees died mysteriously this year, putting an end to the king's long desire, leaving him devastated. Her death is a controversial subject: whilst some sources claim she died in childbirth, others point to poisoning as cause of her death. Despite this, "the king instead married Marie de Médicis (1573-1642), daughter of the Duke of Tuscany, in October 1600. On 27 September 1601, she bore him the future Louis XIII (...), who continued the Bourbon line." The marriage would also produce the Queen of England, Henriette Marie, who was born a year before her father's death, and would marry King Charles I of England and Scotland, thus making Henry IV the grandfather of Charles II and James II, and a great-great-great grandfather to Louis XV of France. 

Despite the efforts of governing his realm less with strenght than his kind will, Henry IV suffered at least dozen assassination attempts. Eventually, one of those succeeded, and unfortunately on the 14th day of May, 1610, Henry IV was stabbed twice in his chest by a fanatic Catholic. The french sovereign did not make it and he died before getting to his residence. A story tells that his son with his former mistress, Gabrielle, the duke of Vendome told him about a horoscope which predicted his death, but instead of giving ears to such a thing, Henry IV reportedly cried out that "La Brosse is an ass". The king was then buried in Saint Denis Basilica. His consort, Marie de' Médici, served as regent to their son Louis XIII until 1617.

"On the day in question the king started out to visit his minister, Sully, at the Arsenal. It was then in turning from the Rue Saint Honoré into the Rue de la Ferronière that the royal coach, frequently blocked by crowds, offered the opportunity to the assassin Ravaillac, who, jumping upon the footboard, stabbed the king twice in the breast."

Henry IV was a very popular king, as already pointed, and for that he was regarded as Le Bon Roi Henri ("The Good King Henry"), or even Henri le Grand ("Henry the Great"). His gallant manners earned him the nickname of Le Vert Gallant (In English:"The Green Gallant") especially after being reputed of having at least 56 mistresses! There is also:

"A description of him in 1567 reads: "He demeans himself towards all the world with so easy a carriage that people crowd around wherever he is. He enters into conversation as a highly polished man. He is well informed and never says anything which ought not to be said. He loves play and good living." Henry's physical skill and military prowess brought him the friendship of many men and his passionate nature brought him the love of many women (too many, his wife and subjects often thought). He also had a reputation for being high spirited and good humoured."

He was one of the few monarchs that still inspired respect after French Revolution, though because of this event, his head was forever lost and until our days it was not found, remaining thus a mystery. In popular culture, he can be seen in the following french movies: "La Reine Margot" and "Henri IV".

Bibliography:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV_of_France

http://www.biography.com/people/henry-iv-9335199#synopsis

http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/french-history-biographies/henry-iv-france

http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france-in-the-sixteenth-century/henry-iv/

http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/351-07.htm

http://schillerinstitute.org/educ/hist/2014/vereycken-henri_iv-sully.html

http://blog.catherinedelors.com/14th-of-may-1610-assassination-of-king-henri-iv/

http://josfamilyhistory.com/htm/nickel/burch/epperson-stories/henri-iv-assassination.htm

http://www.azquotes.com/author/61286-Henry_IV_of_France

http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/edict-nantes

Pedro II of Brazil: The Last Magnanimous Emperor Of Brazil (1825-1891)

            

                               

                                       

This october we celebrate one year ever since it was decided to carry on with an old idea of writing about royals, known by the public in general or not. So one has decided to open it with a figure that for a while was neglected by the Brazilian historians, Emperor Dom Pedro II.

In our previous posts concerning the history of royals inside Brazil's dynasty of Orléans-Bragança, we have already discussed Pedro II's stepmother, Amélie de Leuchtenberg, and his wife, Teresa of Two-Siciles. Today, we turn our eyes instead to the second, but sadly the last emperor to rule Brazil. Being the direct descendant of Louis XIV of France and Maria Theresa of Habsburg, Pedro was ignored mostly in the 20th century by the Brazilian historiography because of the republicanism and its influence in 'making history'. Nonetheless, in our recent days, there has been a recent attempt to change that, and a few biographies about Pedro and the royal family in general can be found in libraries and on the internet.

Born Pedro of Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier of Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga of Habsburg and Braganza, the future Emperor was the seventh child of Pedro I of Brazil & IV of Portugal and Maria Leopoldina, archduchess of Austria who was one of the daughters of Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. On the side of his mother, Pedro had Habsburg blood, and was a great great grandson of Empress Maria Theresa, also already discussed on a topic here, and on the side of his father he was a grandson of Dom João VI of Portugal and his consort Carlota Joaquina.

When he was a year old, Pedro lost his mother, Empress Maria Leopoldina, and two years later, his father would remarry to Amélie of Leutchenberg, to whom Pedro would remain attached for the rest of his life and exchange letters until the end of her days. Following the year of 1831, Pedro I abdicated the throne to the then Prince Imperial, selecting José Bonifácio de Andrada as the boy's guardian, and departing to Portugal to fight for Pedro's sister Maria's throne, which was usurped by Dom Miguel, Pedro I's brother. Mariana de Verdana, affectionately called by Pedro II as Dadama, held her post as his governess. Another one left in charge to take care of Pedro was a man named Rafael, a veteran who fought the War of Cisplatine next to the young emperor's father. Rafael was already an employée of the Palace of São Cristóvão who carried the duty of looking after Pedro II throughout the rest of his life.

Pedro II's childhood was not very happy. He "spent his days studying, with only two hours set aside for amusement. (...) He was able to acquire knowledge with great ease. However, the hours of study were strenuous and the preparation for his role as monarch was demanding. He had few friends of his age and limited contact with his sisters. All that coupled with the sudden loss of his parents gave Pedro II an unhappy and lonely upbringing. The environment in which he was raised turned him into a shy and needy person who saw books as a refuge and retreat from the real world."

As for his early days as sovereign of such a large country, those were marked by instabilities, such as a Civil War between the Crown and the South in a long dispute by this latter's desire of independence amongst other rebellions. Because the regency was seen as failure by many, especially through the eyes of the liberals, "the possibility of lowering the young Emperor's age of majority, instead of waiting until he turned 18, had been floated since 1835. His elevation to the throne had led to a troublesome period of endles crises. (...) According to historian Roderick J. Barman, by 1840, "they had lost all faith in their ability to rule the country on their own. They accepted Pedro II as an authority figure whose presence was indispensable for the country's survival". When asked by politicians if he would like to assume full powers, Pedro II shyly accepted. On the following day, 23 July 1840, the General Assembly (the Brazilian Parliament) formally declared the 14-year-old Pedro II of age. He was later acclaimed, crowned and consecrated on 18 July 1841."

Having been raised to a monarch filled with sense of duty, Pedro would bring great development throughout the years he reigned in Brazil. An Emperor who could speak nine languages, with great interest for sciences, technologies and arts, Pedro II collected a variety of friends, from republicans to scientists. When he travelled, especially to United States where he was acquainted to Alexander Graham Bell and president Ulysses S. Grant, his "down to earth " manners earned him the nickname of "Yankee emperor"; in Europe too, where he often visited, he insisted not only to pay such travels himself, refusing to use the government's economy for such, but also to be treated humbly as Pedro of Alcântara, avoiding to caught attention from the press.

In matters of his personal life, Pedro II was betrothed to Teresa Christina of Two-Siciles, a granddaughter of Maria Theresa of Habsburg's daughter, Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples, also a first cousin to Pedro's mother, Maria Leopoldina. Teresa's brother sent a portrait that beautified her features, but in reality to him, as they first met, it became a great disappointment for him. Teresa was not the beauty expected, but neither she was ugly. Despite Pedro II's extra marital affairs, whose infamous mistress was the Countess of Barral, who was supposedly disliked by the Empress, the two developed an affectionate relationship, even though it did not turn out to be a match love. Teresa gave Pedro a few children, of whom only two survived to adulthood: the princesses Isabel and Leopoldina. These two would later be well married to princes whoses houses were connected to the traditional monarchies in Europe, especially in the 19th century: Isabel's husband, Gastón, Count of Eu, was a member of the ancient french house of Orléans and also a grandson to the french king Louis Philippe; whilst Leopoldina's husband, Prince Ludwig, was a cousin twice removed of Queen Victoria of United Kingdom and her husband Prince Albert from the side of the house of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Because of these close relations, Pedro was often seen in Germany. He also visited Great Britain, having been received by Queen Victoria in her Scottish residence in Balmoral.

Where it concerns his rule in Brazil, it is important to take notice he was careful to drive a country divided by factions and marked by a slavery culture which shaped a great part of conservative members leaded by farmers. However, even with great opposition faced by a new party, formed by Republicans, the Emperor greatly encouraged freedom's speech. There were several journals that criticized his rule but none of them was closed. He also managed to hold the crown throughout rebellions that exploded in his reign, and had a great concerned with education and public schools. One of his most famous quotes state that: "Were I not an Emperor, I would like to be a teacher. I do not know of a task more noble than to direct young minds and prepare the men of tomorrow." This fondness for teaching and culture would reflect directly in "the creation of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute to promote research and preservation in the historical, geographical, cultural and social sciences. The Imperial Academy of Music and National Opera and the Pedro II School were also founded, the latter serving as a model for schools throughout Brazil. The Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts, established by his father, received further strengthening and support. Using his civil list income, Pedro II provided scholarships for Brazilian students to study at universities, art schools and conservatories of music in Europe. He also financed the creation of the Institute Pasteur, helped underwrite the construction of Wager's Bayreuth Festspielhaus, as well as subscribing to similar projects. His efforts were recognized both at home and abroad. Charles Darwin said of him: "The Emperor does so much for science, that every scientific man is bound to show him the utmost respect."." It is also said that Pedro II amazed Friedrich Nietzsche with his intelect and that Victor Hugo claimed D.Pedro II was the grandson of the great Julius Cesar. The Emperor was also a member of the Royal Society, Russian Academy of Arts, American Geographical Society, amongs others. In 1875 he was elected to be part of the French Academy of Arts, of which only Napoléon Bonapart and Peter the Great of Russia were selected members.

He was also "interested in expanding his country's primary agricultural commodities and in making Brazil a major cotton producer. After the defeat of the Confederate States in the U.S. Civil War, the emperor invited successful Confederate cotton planters to settle in Brazil. Between 1867 and 1871, when slavery was still legal in Brazil, at least three thousand Confederate families passed through the port of Rio de Janeiro. About 80 percent of the families returned to the United States, but one successful American settlement in Brazil--Americana, founded by Colonel William Hutchinson Norris (1800-1893) of Mobile, Alabama--still exists."

Back to domestic politics, Pedro II was forced to deal with Parliament, Senate and, as early mentioned, factions that were divided by liberals and conservatives. At first, this would make him head of state in a similar manner Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom was, but with a small difference: Pedro held the moderation power (Portuguese: poder moderador), which meant "he could affect legislation already proposed, but could not initiate much of anything himself. He used his power judiciously, and the factions in the legislature were so contentious among themselves that Pedro was able to effectively wield much more power tha he supposedly had."

From 1850 on, an internal improvement could be seen, through the reforms that aimed to develop economy, conciliate the divided factions that struggled for power by promoting less partisanship and forward infrasctruture. We can better comprehend it in the next paragraph:

"The Emperor's more notable political successes were achieved primarily because of the non-confrontational and cooperative manner with which he approached both issues and the partisan figures with whom he had to deal. He was remarkably tolerant, seldom taking offense at criticism, opposition or even incompetence. He did not have the constitutional authority to force acceptance  of his initiatives without support, and his collaborative approach towards governing kept the nation progressing and enabled the political system to successfully function. The Emperor respected the prerogatives of the legislature, even when they resisted, delayed or thwarted his goals and appointments. Most politicians appreciated and supported his role."

In essence, he was a peacemaker, but this did not stop him in getting Brazil to a war against Paraguay. This, in an alliance with Argentina and Uruguay that was known by the name of Triplice Alliance, was a result of ambitious moves from Paraguay's dictator Francisco Lopes. Though Pedro preferred to use a dialogue at first, he had no choice but send imperial troops after Lopes invaded Mato Grosso do Sul, in an attempt to attach it. This conflict happened almost at the same time tensions with Great Britain threatened to lead to war, due to diplomatic issues of both sides, when the British ambassador "sent an ultimatum containing abusive demands arising out of two minor incidents at the end of 1861 and beginning of 1862. The first was the sinking of commercial barque on the coast of Rio Grande do Sul after which its goods were pillaged by local inhabitants. The second was the arrest of drunken British officers who were causing a disturbance in the streets of Rio. The Brazilian government refused to yield, and Christie issued orders for British warships to capture Brazilian merchant vessels as indemnity" until he "chaned his tenor and proposed a peaceful settlement through international arbitration."

Few conflicts marked his reign with the same importance of these wars as the abolitionist movement. Though Pedro II, who never owned any slaves, was one of the few who openly supported the abolitionists, he delayed the abolition for political purposes: Brazilian's monarchy was greatly supported by the farmers who owned slaves, and by that time more than 50% of the country's economy was moved by agriculture. Little by little, though, he initiated these steps with three important laws: the first one, known as law of the free belly, was promulgated in 1871 and regarded to set free the children of slaves, though they should continue working until they reached 21 years old. The second law, known as the law of Sexagenarian, was promulgated in 1885 and released from slavery those who were 65 years old and above. Yet it received a launch of criticism due to the state a slave reached in life.

It would not be until 1888 that 'Golden Law' (Portuguese: Lei Áurea) were promulgated. Signed by Pedro II's eldest daughter, princess Isabel, this law came to abolish effectively slavery in all Brazil. It was one of the last western countries to do so. But it had its consequences. Pedro II was getting sick by this time, and was on his travels around Europe when this happened. Isabel was left regent, though against his will. Although Pedro and his family were popular, monarchy was not. In November 15th, 1889, a coup d'état replaced monarchy to republicanism. There was not, unlike other countries that sought to make such a transition, popular involvement into this. Dissastified farmers, once owners of slaves, joined the militars who sent away Pedro II, his consort and children to exile. Many would be surprised after the deposition of Emperor Pedro, who was very liked by brazilian population. He died in exile, missing the country he loved and it was not until 1921 he would be buried in the city of Petrópoles, in Rio de Janeiro.

So, looking back at his reign, we can generally observe that "Pedro II was popular, but his policies in economic and social matters proved problematic. Entanglements in Latin American wars also plagued his reign. In 1850, the slave trade was prohibited; in 1871, gradual emancipation was granted; and in 1888, with Pedro II absence in Europe, his daughter Isabel, acting ruler, signed a law abolishing slavery. The nature of Brazil's agrarian economy and the power of plantation owners led to opposition to the nature of these laws. A growing coalition of the urban middle class, plantation owners, and military leaders united in opposition to the traditional monarchy (...). Pedro II wrote late in his reign 'If I were not an emperor, I should like to be a school teacher. i know of no calling greater or noble than that of directing young minds and of training the men of the future" (Williams, 1937, p 214). (...) During his reign, progress was made to foster in Brazil the quest for learning. After the war with Paraguay, he learned of efforts to erect an equestrian statue of him. Pedro II promptly wrote a letter encouraging that the money be used for the construction of more primary school buildings or improvements in existig public buildings. "

Pedro of Alcantara was a simply man, with fine tastes, and had an important part in the development of Brazilian's culture. On the current days, he is no longer seen as an emperor who was deposed in favor of a better democracy; a better recognition has been working to change this image. Emperor Pedro II might have had his faults, as any politician -being a royal or not- had in any of the period we study, but he did his best for the country he loved. He was respected by his enemies, adored by his subjects, and definitely improved the image of the royal family that his father left damaged as he was sent to exile. Unfortunately, Pedro II followed the destiny of Pedro I, but his inheritance is thankfully being recovered and his character, studied, as should be.

Biography:

http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?action=read&artid=427

http://biography.yourdictionary.com/pedro-ii

http://www.wfmz.com/features/History-s-Headlines/historys-headlines-the-emperor-pays-a-call-dom-pedro-ii-ruler-of-brazil-dazzled-lehigh-valley-with-a-visit/21409658

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Brazil

http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/thehistoryofbrazil/p/Emperor-Pedro-Ii-Of-Brazil.htm

http://madmonarchist.blogspot.com.br/2009/07/monarch-profile-emperor-pedro-ii-of.html

http://international.loc.gov/intldl/brhtml/br-1/br-1-5-2.html

http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/brazilian-history-biographies/pedro-ii

http://www.lexiophiles.com/english/dom-pedro-ii-brazils-last-emperor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston,_Count_of_Eu#Early_years

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Ludwig_August_of_Saxe-Coburg_and_Gotha

http://www.historiadobrasil.net/brasil_monarquia/leis_abolicionistas.htm

King James V: The Pious and Popular Sovereign of Scotland (1516-1542)

If previously we have discussed two of the female members of the Stewart/Stuart Dynasty, such as Margaret Tudor the Queen of Scots and her great great granddaughter, Elizabeth Stuart, the Winter Queen, today the topic is about a figure of the same dynasty, commonly known as the father of the infamous Mary, Queen of Scots. 

Yet, the question of his figure remains, after all, who was he? Besides as regarding his relationship with his heiress, why is there so little talk about him? James V's own death is particularly a cause that would make him less "interesting" to many, considering that he wasn't killed in a battlefield like James IV neither had a dramatic death like his daughter, instead dying in his bed. To those who expect to find an extreme end in James V's life is a mistake at the same time it should not be a reason to disregard his deeds as the king he was. So today is an attempt to bring to public discussion that James Stewart was far from only being the father of Mary, Queen of Scots.

Born on the 10th day of April, the year being 1516, at the Linlithgow Palace. His parents were Margaret Tudor and James IV of Scotland, thus making him the grandson of Henry VII of England. When he was seven months old, James inherited the crown from his father, upon his death at the Battle of Flooden as a result of conflicts with the English. Towards the end of the month of September, the 21st day to be specific, the infant king was crowned at the Chapel Royal, located in the Stirling Castle. What we know of his early childhood can be said below:

"In February 1517, James came from Stirling to Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh, but during an outbreak of plague in the city he was moved to the care of Antoine d'Arces at nearby rural Craigmillar Castle. At Stirling, the 10 -year-old James had a guard of 20 footmen dressed in his colours, red and yellow. When he went to the park below the Castle, "by secret and in right fair and soft wedder (weather)", six horsemen would scour the countryside two miles roundabout for intruders. Poets wrote their own nursery rhymes for James and advised him on royal behavior. As a youth, his education was in the care of University of St Andrews poets such as Sir David Lyndsay. William Stewart, in his poem Princelie Majestie, counselled James against ice-skating."

His mother, the Queen Dowager, Margaret Tudor was, in this time, given the regency of her boy king. However, the next year, it was John Stewart, who  was next in line for the Scottish throne after his nephew, since Margaret was married to the 6th Earl of Angus, Archbald Douglas. Although many assume this to be a love match, one may assume this was one rather to provide safety for a woman in a foreigner country, a way to gather her allies and forment an alliance to hold her power in Scotland, strenghtening thus an Anglo-Scottish relationship. However, this would prove to be amiss and, as already mentioned, John Stewart came to replace her as regent for the king. 

Until, "in 1526 Angus obtained control of the king, and kept him in close confinement until 1528, when James, escaping from Edinburgh to Stirling, put vigorous mesures in execution against the earl, and compelled him to flee to England." It was said that the reason James V had illegitimate children before 20 years of age is related to his stepfather's the earl of Angus desire of alienate him from his duties as king. But, before he managed to get away of Archbald Douglas' claws, "there were several attempts made to free the young king- one by Walter Scott of Branxholme and Buccleuch, who ambushed the king's forces on 25 July 1526 at the battle of Melrose, and was routed off the field. Another attempt later that year, on 4 Sept at the battle of Linlithgow Bridge, failed again to relieve the King (...)".

So when he freed himself from Douglas, "the first action James took as king was to remove Angus from the scene. The Douglas family were forced into exile and James besieged their castle at Tantallon. He then subdued the Border rebels and the chiefs of the Western Isles. As well as taking advice from his nobility and using the services of the Duke of Albany in France and at Rome, James had a team of professional lawyers and diplomats, including Adam Otterburn and Thomas Erskine of Haltoun." 

For this reason, James was more sympathetic to the causes of his people, with some historians claiming the nickname of "King of the Commons", especially after a legend that says he would travel every now and then disguised as a man, "describing himself as the 'Gudeman of Ballengeich' ('Gudeman' means 'landlord' or 'farmer', and 'Ballengeich' was the nickname of a road next to Stirling Castle--meaning 'windy pass' in Gaelic)." He was also fond of the English costumes, having been known for being an Anglophile. James could too play a lute instrument, being a very good player; and he was said to have been the author of many poems during his reign, although this cannot be confirmed. With poetry and music being arts he very deeply appreciated, a consequence for this king of Renaissance, James also "maintained a band of Italian musicians who adopted the name Drummond." According to Sir Thomas Wood, "James had a 'a singular good ear and could sing that he had never seen before (sight-read), but his voice was 'rawky' and 'harske'". 

In matters of politics, James had much learned from his experience being under the guard of the 6th Earl of Angus. He held constant suspicious from nobility, and even tried to balance it with reasonable comprehension of the needs in articulating with it, which was quite uncommon. James sought to favour peace relations with England, and his uncle, King Henry VIII, was reported to send if not a lion and very expensive gift after he attempted to stop the bad press concerning the English monarch in the High lands. Another of the good deeds of James comes in making a better approach and relationship with the Scottish tribes, even though this would not last long because of his early death in 1542. He also "slowly began to rebuild the shattered finances of the Crown, largely enriching the funds of the monarchy at the expense of the Church."

Being a very pious man, James V was a strike key to opposite the Protestant Reform to reach the High Lands. He burnt at stake the first Scottish Protestant martyr, Patrick Hamilton on the 29th February 1529 and four of his illegitimate sons went to the Church, with the Pope recognizing them as natural sons of the Crown. That leads us to the fact James had at least nine illegitimate children, and the most famous of them was his son with his favourite mistress, Margaret Erksine, the 1st Earl of Moray, James Stewart. 

As for his marriage, though it is known he was married twice to two French noble women, it was earlier suggested other names for him. Amongst them, we came up with Catherine de' Médici and his cousin Mary Tudor, having even been in a contract with Mary of Bourbon. And despite looking elsewhere, James decided to renew the Auld Alliance, an old peace treaty arranged between France and Scotland centuries before James's reign and which had traditionally been given benefits for both realms when times requested it. So to put more pressure in to it, James travelled all the way to France himself, once King Francis I found hesitating in sending his daughter's hand Madeleine to a diplomatic marriage because of her poor health. Nonetheless, they were successfully married, but no more than six months and the french princess did not survive, some having claiming that she died in the king's arms.

In the next year, James looked for another bride and King Henry VIII tried to persuade him for doing so. It seems both kings had the same desire of marrying the same woman: Marie de Guise, adopted fille (daughter) of the King Francis. Marie de Guise, or de Lorraine, was the eldest daughter of the duke of Guise. She was reportedly tall, enjoying a robust health and of an admiring beauty, having been already a widow mother of two healthy boys. However, she chose James V over Henry VIII and soon they were married; Marie would deliver two boys also as consort of James but they would not survive infancy, and the only one who did so would be Mary.

With the death of his mother in 1541, any chance of reconciling peace with England was buried with her. Henry VIII proposed a meeting with his nephew in an attempt to persuade him to deter him of the Auld Alliance, but with Marie's pregnancy and the debility of James' health, amongst other problems, leaded Henry Tudor to break in to Scotland. There, despite some victories, the Scottish army fell and the loss would devastate James, leaving him depressed and putting an end to his already poor health. Some accounts say, on the other hand, that what happened to James V of Scotland  "on 6 December, (...)  was a nervous collapse caused by the defeat, and he may have died from the grief."

He was on his deathbed when Mary was born and, before he was dead, was "reported to have said "it came wi a lass, it'll gang wi a lass" (meaning "it began with a girl and will end with a girl"). This was either a reference to the Stewart dynasty's accenssion to the throne through Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert the Bruce or to the medieval origin myth of the Scots nation". Having died on midnight of December 15th 1542, James V of Scotland was buried at Holyrood Abbey, in Edinburgh.

What should be held here in consideration is some aspects that do not match to the perspective of  an absolutist king that was trending in England, France and Spain's monarchies. On the contrary, James, as a man, was a patron of the arts, the embodiment of the concept of Renaissance as much as in many ways his uncle tried to be; he had inherited from his mother aspects of the English culture, that, sadly, could not have been deeply approached here because of lack of material. As a king, he was a pious and devouted man who relied on his independence from the secular and religious men, but at the same time he managed to use his relationship as the good Catholic man with the Church not only to fight away Protestantism but to enrich the Scottish crown. He was not corrupt and, as far as it can be said, not a volatile man, despite his temper and melancholy, two characteristics said to have been present at his daughter Mary's character. James was good. Not perfect, but a good king. Unfortunately, because of social expectations considering who can be a hero or who can be a villain, it is not seen as heroic or even a mid term someone who did not embody the tragic elements that his father and later his daughter had. A meaningful death. Nonetheless, James' death would have probably greater meaning in our days where depression is so much more known and better understood. That pride devastated and left our king to the death is as horrifying as being killed by one's beliefs. And that is precising why James Stewart should never be left aside of historiography.

Bibliography:

http://unusualhistoricals.blogspot.com.br/2011/08/illegitimate-children-of-james-v.html

http://www.rampantscotland.com/famous/blfamjames5.htm

http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/monarchs/jamesv.html

http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofScotland/Kings-Queens-of-Scotland/

http://www.mcgonagall-online.org.uk/gems/an-adventure-in-the-life-of-king-james-v-of-scotland

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_V_of_Scotland

http://www.britroyals.com/scots.asp?id=james5_scot

http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/stewart_7.htm

http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/scotlandshistory/renaissancereformation/jamesv/index.asp

http://www.theanneboleynfiles.com/birth-of-james-v-of-scotland-10-april-1512/

http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/james5.htm

Cnut Sweynsson (990-1035): The Great Medieval King Who Conquered England, Denmark and Sweden.

On this day, it is this formidable king known by many as Cnut the Great the subject of our blog. He is considered by many one of the most famous personalities to rule in the period we regard as Middle Ages. However, compared to his predecessor, the Anglo-Saxon king of Wessex, Alfred -who was also styled as the Great- and even to the last two saxon kings who later succeeded his crown, Edward the Confessor and Harold II, Cnut is not often the centre of discussion amongst medievalists. After all, we question ourselves: who was he? What kind of king was this foreigner viking who managed to conquer the English lands long before the conquest of William of Normandy? In a humble attempt, we hope to enlight this historical figure and provide a discussion of his role in the formation of the English society. 

Cnut, also spelled Canute (in Old Norse: Knútr) or Knut, was the second son of the Prince of Denmark named Sweyn Forkbeard, who, in turn, was the grandson of Gorm the Old, who was once the subject of this blog. Regarding the identity of his mother, it is supposed that she was Sweyn's consort, a Polish princess named Gunhid. Because "Harald, the Crown Prince of Denmark, was their father's heir, Canute, as the second of the king was not expected to rule but was expected to lead troops and fight. According to sources the young Canute was trained by the legendary Thorkell the Tall of the Jomsviking in the art of combat. It is thought that Canute joined his father in battle at the invasion of Norwich in 1003/4 in response to the St Brice's Day Massacre of 1002, as the Skalkd, Óttarr svarti, describes a campaign similar to Norwich and states that Canute was 'of no great age' at the time."

Indeed his warrior skills would be effective to his next invasion in England. His father, Swein, managed to conquer all England, but unfortunately his reign did not last any more than 5 weeks. As we can observe below:

"The Danish north of England gave itself up and when the south followed suit, King Aethelred II fled to Normandy in December leaving Sveinn as sole king. But Sveinn died on 3 February 1014, Aethelred returned, and the young Cnut, who had been accepted as king by the Danelaw and Viking fleet, was forced back to Denmark"

For Cnut, though, the situation was not hopeless, for "Aethelred had fallen ill, and his son Edmund Ironside was in a violent dispute with Eadric Streona, the powerful ealderman of Mercia." It is thought he had an agreement with his brother, then king of Denmark, of which the latter would provide Cnut a marine force along a very well trained army if he did not try to claim the Danish throne,

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, the said dispute between Edmund Ironside and Eadric happened "at the same time (...) King Knute (...) went soon (...) about Kent into Wessex, until he came to the mouth of the Frome; and then plundered in Dorset, and in Wiltshire, and in Somerset. King Ethelred, meanwhile, lay sick at Corsham; and Alderman Edric collected an army there, and Edmund the Etheling in the north. When they came together, the alderman designed to betray Edmund the etheling but he could not; whereupon they separated without an engagement, and sheered off from their enemies. Alderman Edric then seduced forty ships from the king, and submitted to Knute. The West-Saxons also submitted, and gave hostages, and horsed the army. And submitted, And he continued there until the midwinter."

The conquest was a bloody one, with several battles between Edmund Ironisde and Cnut Sweynsson, as reported by the "Chronicles", but, "in 1016 Canute returned and was victorious at the Battle of Ashingdon (Ashingdown) over Edmund 'Ironisde', Aethelred's eldest son and successsor. Canute and Edmund drew up the Treaty of Olney, which allotted The Danelaw and the English midlands to Canute, while Edmund retained control of southern England. (...) Edmund died shortly after this treaty and so Canute found himself the first Viking king of all England."

Unlike his predecessors, Cnut styled himself as King of all England, not 'king of the English'. His first years as king of England was, however, not the easiest: to settle down as uncontested monarch to the newly united land he used propaganda as one weapon and political tactics as other. For example, he got rid of one of Aethelred's survivings sons, contribuited to send to exile Edmund's own children aside of having killed the two-faced and highly distrustful ealdorman Eardric and other political rivals. It is surprising, though, how, despite the early oppositions, his authority was shaped successfully and through that the rise of an empire that, sadly, would not go pass by the next generation. So in the next paragraph, through the use of propaganda, we can observe that:

"Cnut (...) employed one of Aethelred's main counselors, Wulfstan, achbishop of York, to be his right hand man. A similar concern for showing continuity can be seen in the laws that Cnut issued. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle notes that in 1018: "Dene 7 Engle wurdon sammaele aet Oxnaforda to Eadgares lage" (the Danes and English came to an agreement in Oxford to [follow] the law of Edgar). 'Edgar' is King Edgar the Peaceful of England (943-957) and Cnut appears to have modeled his own law codes on those of Edgar, e.g by copying the introduction of Edgar's laws at verbatim. By presenting his own laws as being in line with those of Edgar, Cnut places himself within an Anglo-Saxon tradition of government. (...) Cnut's second strategy was to identify himself explicitly with the AngloSaxons. He did so, for example, by addressing the Anglo-Saxons with words like 'we' and 'us' in his Letter to the English of 1020."

A close approachment was a tactic used to cast a shadow at his 'foreigner' side, since the English disliked those who were not their countrymen, and a way to distant himself of politics that constant placed the Danes and the English in opposite sides, perhaps trying to reapproch these social groups. Also, "another instance in which Cnut seems to align himself on the side of the Anglo-Saxons, against the Danes, is by favouring the cults of specific Anglo-Saxon saints who had been martyred by Vikings. An example of such a saint is Aelfheah ('elf-high'), a bishop who was brutally murdered in 1012 by drunk Danes."

Indeed, Cnut had a great relationship with the Church. and by having the Archbishop of York Wulfstan as one of his closest advisors is another evidence of it, next to the buildings of churches and patronising Anglo-Saxons saints. He also divided the realm at first to four earldormen who were his counterparts before replacing them by native men of his trust. One of the greatest achievements of Cnut was not only building an Anglo-Scandinavian empire, which improved the relationship of these countries, contributing for the commerce and trade; but also his sense of justice and peace, when he held peace for the 19 years of his reign, since he provided security by preventing further incursions of the Vikings to England's shore. His marriage to Aelthered's widow, Emma of Normandy, also supplied the necessities of a better standing concerning the attempts on the king's part to reconcile the interests as himself as king and also on the behalf of the kingdom. He was, thus, the first monarch to have ruled England in a certain unity that would be seen better fortified after the Norman conquest in 1066.

As for the matter of the matrimony, briefly mentioned in the last paragraph concerning the widow Emma, it is one filled with controversy, though. For apparently "he had as well a consort in Denmark, Aelfgifu of Aelfhelm, with whom he had initiated a relationship in 1013 while holding charge of the fleet at Gainsborough. His marriage to Aelfgifu was after the Danish custom and not one sanctioned within the Christian church; together they had two sons, Harald Harefoot and Sweyn. When Canute then married Emma, a precondition was that the sons of their marriage would stand in line for the English throne before Canute's older sons or Emma's sons by Ethelred. The royal couple would eventually have two children, a boy, Harthacanute, and a girl, Gunhild, who later married Prince Henry of Germany."

But when Cnut came to die in 1035, the succession line was questioned due to a power struggle between Aelfgifu and Emma, but eventually the English chose Harald to succeed Cnut, forcing Emma to flee with her sons. Nonetheless, Harald would reign very briefly, for five years only, and he would be succeeded by his controversial brother Harthacanute, before the crown was inherited by Edward the Confessor, Emma's son with Aelthered. With the death of Harthacanute, though, also came to die the empire Cnut struggled to build. And after the conquest of William of Normandy, in 1066, Cnut's deeds were basically left to the margins of history. Is it fair that William receives the title of conqueror when he was not the first of doing so? Should Cnut or his father be acknowledged as both having important roles in shaping England's society?

It is difficult to respond these questions, but one at least can be sketched, on the basis of suppositions. But in a society ruled by a pious man as Cnut, who internalized years of pre-cristian cultures and practices, it was through his relationship with the Church that helped in to the development of a better relationship between the Christianism and the popular religion, which was strained for centuries, especially with the Vikings incursions -as a consequence of. these, some practices were inserted along with Christian practices that were already stablished with some of which being disapproved by the members of the Church. By holding an Archbishop who had an interest in changing that relationship, was a very clever move of Cnut, because that way he could also reconcile the interests of distant cultures that had its days of rivalries.

So that was also a way that Cnut, unlike one of his sons, was not seen directly as "foreigner". He learned much with his father, that is true. But Cnut held the capacity of making an empire that his heirs failed to hold. Through a religious perspective, it is important to notice that, especially because by having good relations with the Church in those days, was also an excellent instrument to hold the power uncontested in a society where religion was intrinsic to other social fields, On that matter, Cnut was, then, as successful as William of Normandy would be in his own days, except perhaps he could not produce a strong lineage to follow his steps. Perhaps, as we now say in our own days, it was just not meant to be.

Bibliography:

https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/20968/GAG_MAGCnut.pdf;jsessionid=CE9D497756B02EF40654ACF7342FF60C?sequence=1

https://talkinghumanities.blogs.sas.ac.uk/2016/06/28/from-worse-to-better-the-reign-of-cnut-the-great-1016-35/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnut_the_Great

http://storbritannien.um.dk/en/Culture/cnut-the-great-king-of-england-1016-to-1035/cnuts-conquest-and-reign/

http://www.viking.no/the-viking-kings-and-earls/canute-knud-the-great/

http://biography.yourdictionary.com/canute-i-the-great

http://historymedren.about.com/od/cwho/p/canute-the-great.htm

http://www.jorvik-viking-festival.co.uk/about/canute/

http://www.vikingeskibsmuseet.dk/en/professions/education/viking-knowledge/viking-age-people/historical-characters/cnut-the-great-of-denmark-england-and-norway/

http://www.medievalchronicles.com/medieval-kings-2/early-medieval-kings/king-cnut-the-great/

http://www.fortidensjelling.dk/jellinge49.htm

https://ia902605.us.archive.org/2/items/Anglo-saxonChronicles/anglo_saxon_chronicle.pdf

Maria de Molina: Three Times Queen Of Castile (1265-1321)

On today's post, we will discuss the life of a royal woman who was queen of Castile three times: first as consort of Sancho IV, second and third as regent for her son and grandson. Despite the fact there is little bibliography found about this figure, we hope we can at least enlight the person she was and set alight an interest about her.

María de Molina was born around the year of 1265, being the daughter of Alfonso of Léon, Lord of Molina, who was a young son of King Alfonso IX of Castile with his second wife Berengaria of Castile, and his third wife Mayor Alfonso of Menezes. She was a great-great granddaughter of Henry II of England and a sister to Alfonso, lord of Menezes, and a half-sister to two daughters Alfonso previously had with his two other wives.

Little is known regarding Maria's infancy, though it is presumed it was a happy and quiet one. We can also suppose she had a good education, considering later in life her role as consort to both her son and grandson.

So what is known about her comes next:

"In 1282, María was married to Sancho, the second son of the king Alfonso X and the queen Violante. The marriage did not begin well, for not only there was a struggle concerning the nullity about the consanguinity of third degree but also Sancho had already taken as wife, years before, Guillerma de Montcada, daughter of Vizconde de Bearne, though on his part this was never revoked."¹

The result of this was the question of the legitimacy concerning the children of this marriage, especially the heir of the Castilian crown, later known as Fernando IV, though her place as queen remained undisputed. The nature of the marriage is also not known, but their offspring not only includes Fernando but also Isabel (or Isabella), future Queen of Aragon and duchess of Brittany, Alfonso, Henry, Peter,Philip, Infante of Castile, and Beatrice, Queen of Portugal. Only Alfonso and Henry did not make to childhood.

However, in 1295, "(...) Sancho IV (...) was succeeded by his eldest son Fernando IV, who was under age. Though according to the Crónica de Sancho IV, Sancho designanted Maria as the sole regent", but, "she was forced to share the regency with Sancho's uncle, Infante Enrique El Senador (Henry of Castile the Senator), younger brother of Alfonso X. Fernando's rule was challenged by a coalition that included his uncle, Infante Juan, his cousins the infantes de la Cerda, sons of the infante Fernando de la Cerda, eldest son of Alfonso X, as well as King James II of Aragón and King Dionisio I de Portugal." ²

Her main role had been converted in being "tutor of the boy king Fernando, who (...) was not declared legitimate. She then started the rough task in getting supports for the cause of her son, supports which she found in urban oligarchies that gave their support to the young king in the courts of Valladolid. Years later in 1301, she achieved another goal with the bull of the pope Boniface VIII in which was given the validity the matrimony of Sancho IV and Maria de Molina, consequently recognizing Fernando IV as a legitimate king."³

Civil War continued for years between those who supported Fernando's cause, on the side of María, who "built her own coalition, relying on the Castilian Cortes to confirm her authority and playing the powerful family clan of Haro against the Lara clan, who supported the opposition." Nonetheless, victory came to her cause when the leader of the opposition reconciled with the king and Portugal withdrew from the wars, returning to an allegiance with the king by offering the hand of the infanta Constance as the consort of Fernando.

It is said she disappears from the court after the birth of Fernando's heir, but returns after the death of both Fernando and Constance in different times, thus becoming regent for her grandson, Alfonso XI. This regency on her part lasted for nine years until her death in 1321, before it was moved forward to her son Philip, who shared regency with Juan el Tuerto, a Castilian Infante.

Nothing else is said about this woman, who held her position as Queen and as regent despite many struggles to do so in days where her gender was undermined by the Salic Law. It is not surprise to find strong women such as María among the Queens who made History in what we today regard as Spain. But even so, there is so little about her that it was with that in mind, we came to propose a discussion about her. Every woman held importance for the age they lived, they thus helped to shape the society they were inserted to. The victory of María proves the strenght she had to bear to survive: as wife, to have her marriage recognized by the Church; as queen, to have her right of being a regent uncontested and foremost, as a mother, who would not give up until having her son as crowned king, but legitimized.

Though it is sad we have no more informations to enlight the figue of such a woman, one expects this is only the start for a discussion concerning the medieval queens and their roles back to the time and place they lived in. María was not the first nor will be the last to constitute an exception among the expectations driven back to her gender, but certainly will continue to inspire a discussion about the importance of queens to the days they lived.



¹ "En 1282 María se casaba con Sancho, el segundo hijo del rey Alfonso X y la reina Violante. El matrimonio no empezó con buen pie pues no sólo se enfretaban a la nulidad por una consanguinidad de tercer grado sino que, además, Sancho ya había celebrado esponsales años atrás con Guillermina de Montcada, hija del Vizconde de Bearne, pero nunca los había revocado". (http://www.mujeresenlahistoria.com/2012/04/tres-veces-reina-maria-de-molina-1264.html)

² Wikipédia

³ "(...) María se convertia en tutora del rey niño Fernando, (..) no declarado legitimo. Empezaba la dura y ardua tarea de conseguir los apoyos suficientes para la causa de su hijo, apoyos que encontró en las oligarquías urbanas las cuales dieron su apoyo al joven rey en las Cortes de Valladolid. Años despúes en 1301, conseguía su otro objetivo, la bula del papa Bonifacio VIII en la que daba por válido el matrimonio de Sancho IV y Maria de Molina y consecuentemente Fernando IV se convertía en un rey legítimo." (http://www.mujeresenlahistoria.com/2012/04/tres-veces-reina-maria-de-molina-1264.html)

Bibliography:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_de_Molina

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_XI_of_Castile

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_of_Molina#Marriage_and_children

http://www.mujeresenlahistoria.com/2012/04/tres-veces-reina-maria-de-molina-1264.html

http://www.biografiasyvidas.com/biografia/m/maria_demolina.htm

Amélie de Leuchtenberg: The Second Empress of Brazil (1812-1873)

From medieval to modern days, we today come across with an Empress who ruled very shortly an Empire located in the tropics, during the mid of 19th century. As the second consort of Emperor Pedro, Amélie of Leuchtenberg held briefly the title before she was sent to exile with her husband after he was forced to abdicate. Her figure is very little discussed amongst Brazilian's historiography and few are the sources about this interesting woman, who's the subject of the blog on this day.

Amélie de Leuchtenberg (Portuguese: Amélia Augusta Eugénia de Leuchtenberg; French: Amélie Auguste Eugénie de Leuchtenberg) was born on the 31st day of July, 1812 in Milan. Her parents were Eugène de Beauharnais, duke of Leuchtenberg and only male son of the famous Empress Josephine of Beauharnais of France with her first husband Alexandre de Beauharnais, and princess Augusta of Bavaria, whose father was the king of Bavaria, Maximilian I. Amélie was the fourth of the seven children of her parents, who included the Queen of Sweden Josephine, and her education was tutored by her own mother, princess Augusta.

There is almost nothing regarding her childhood and education, except when it comes to the fact she seemed to have filled the demands of the emperor of Brazil for a second wife. Pedro of Braganza was crowned Emperor of Brazil in December 1st 1822 after the political process he and his then first wife the Archduchess of Austria Maria Leopoldina participated, of which culminated in Brazilian's independence and formation of the empire of Brazil. However, with the death of Leopoldina in 1826, Pedro I was in need of a new wife as much as the country required a new Empress. Yet, his reputation at the European courts was not one of the bests because of the mistreatment he caused to his deceased wife by having an affair with Marquesa dos Santos (Marchioness of Santos). Therefore, to find a new consort for the Emperor was a troubled ask his most trusted advisor, known as Barbacena, was confided.

"After the death of his first wife, the Austrian archduchess Maria Leopoldina in December 1826, Emperor Pedro I of Brazil (and King Pedro IV of Portugal) sent the Marquês de Barbacena to Europe to find him a second wife. His task was not easy; several factors complicated the search. First, Dom Pedro had stipulated four conditions: a good family background, beauty, virtue and culture. Conversely, the emperor of Brazil did not have a particularly good image in Europe: his relationship with the Marquesa do Santos was notorious, and few eligible princesses were expected to be eager to leave the courts of Europe to marry a widower who had a tarnished reputation as a husband, becoming step-mother to his five children. To make matters worse, the former father-in-law of Dom Pedro, Francis I of Austria, had a low opinion of his son-in-law's political views, and apparently acted to prevent a new marriage to ensure that his grandchildren would inherit the throne of Brazil if they survived infancy."

However, not all was lost. "Amélie now became a good possibility, but their encounter was brought about not by Barbacena, but by Domingos Borges de Barros, Viscount of Pedra Branca, minister in Paris, to whom she had been pointed out. She came from a distinguished and ancient line on her mother's side, the Wittelsbachs, but her father, an exile who shared the disgrace of Napoleon Bonaparte's deposition as emperor, was not an optimal marital match. However, that was her sole "defect". The princess was tall, very beautiful, well proportioned, with a delicate face. She had blues eyes and brownish-golden hair. António Teles da Silva Caminha e Meneses, Marquês do Resende, sent to verify the beauty of the young lady, praised her highly, saying that she had "a physical air that like that the painter Correggio gave us in his paintings of the Queen of Sheba". She was also cultured and sensitive. A contemporary piece in The Times of London affirms that she was one of the best educated and best prepared princesses in the German world."

How must have Amélie felt when she was betrothed to a man whose reputation was low and hardly well seen by the noblest families of Europe? It's difficult to say, but we may assume she followed with her duties and was well prepared and advised by her mother to what was coming straight ahead. The marriage treaty was signed in England then ratified by Amélie's mother, princess Augusta. When the match was confirmed by Dom Pedro, he broke any links he had with the Marchioness, which was important if he was willing to remarry.

Once her noble and beauty traits were confirmed, "a proxy marriage ceremony on 2 August in the chapel of the Palais Leuchtenberg in Munich was a simple affair with few in attendance, as Amélie insisted on donating to a Munich orphanage the appreciable amount Dom Pedro had sent for a ceremony with full pomp. Dom Pedro was represented by the Marquês de Barbacena. Amélie was barely seventeen years old; Dom Pedro was thirty."

Carl Friedrich von Martius, a scientist, and Ana Romana de Aragão Calmão, Countess of Itapagibe, were sent to aid Amélie in preparing her for the role of which she was expected to perform. She was taught Portuguese, her husband-to-be's personalities and his likes, aside of the journey that would lead her to Brazil. Of her mother, Amélie was advised "that she be demonstrative of her feelings and overcome and timidity so as not to discourage her husband, that she be loving toward her stepchilden, and above all that she remain faithful, as empress, to the interests of the Brazilians."

She then left to Brazil with her brother, Auguste, embarking on the frigate Imperatriz and sailed from Belgium to Rio de Janeiro. There, she would arrive at October 15th of 1829, and so "traditions says that upon hearing that the ship was approaching, Dom Pedro embarked on a tugboat to meet it on the far side of the bar, and that he collapsed with emotion upon seeing his wife on deck."

The children of Pedro I's first marriage were brought to meet their new stepmother once the first meeting of the newlywed's occurred. She was later formally introduced to court, and it seemed she was well received by those present at the moment as we can see below:

"In January 1830 the new empress was formally presented in court, with a dance at which all of the ladies dressed in pink, the empress's favorite color. The following day, the couple began their honeymoon (...). Upon settling into the imperial palace, the Paço de São Cristóvão, and perceiving what she considered an inadequate standard of protocol, Amélie established French as the court languaged and adopted a ceremonial modeled after European courts. She sought to update the cuisine and fashion, redecorated the palace, acquired new tableware and silverware, and attempted to refine the manners of the court. She achieved at least a partial success in this last, and the elegance of the Empress, always impeccably dressed, became internationally famous."

In comparsion to her predecessor, Maria Leopoldina, Amélie succeeded better by having a place in her husband's heart and dealing well with the court, in its majority composed by Portuguese people or, at least, of Portugueses origins. As the late paragraph attested, she remodelled the court in an attempt to draw it closer to Europe's standards, an effort of modernising the country. One may assume that Pedro II's equally attempts of modern policies he followed might have come from his stepmother, with whom he had an excellent relationship.

Although she did improve the popularity of Pedro I as Emperor of Brazil, she could not manage the decline of it with the succession of crisis that made him renounce his crown for his younger son, the five year old Pedro de Alcântara. Nevertheless, it does well to point that:

"Their marriage was a happy one, unlike Dome Pedro's first, and she reportedly had a good relationship with her legitimate stepchildren as well. Her beauty, good sense, and kindness promptly won the affections of both her husband and his children by his first marriage. She made sure that the latter had a good family environment and received a good education. Shortly after the marriage, a French traveler reported "it appears that the empress continues to exercise her influence over the children of Dom Pedro. The happy results are already apparent, she has already made considerable renovations to the palace, and order has commenced to reign; te princesses' education is supervised and directed personally by the empress", with the same care going to the heir of the throne, little Pedro de Alcântara (later Pedro II of Brazil); the proof of this last being that he soon began to call her "mamãe" ("mommy"). Amélie always expressed her affection for Pedro II, and maintained a correspondence with him until the end of her life, trying to instruct and support him. Nearly six decades of their correspondence survive. Dom Pedro II reciprocated her kindness, soliciting her help in arranging marriages for his own daughters and visiting her in Lisbon in 1871".

At the exile, this non-melancholical woman, kind and subtle in her strong-will personalitly, Amélie would still support her husband and his ilegitimate daughter, the duchess of Goias, whom she came to adopt as if she was of her own, until the end of his days. It was also in exile that she came to give birth to their only daughter, who received the name Maria Amélia. Towards them, she would commit herself, and for the first years in exile, especially after the death of Pedro I, Amélie attempted to be recognized as part of the royal family, but, because of the regency of the monarch fearing she might try to influence the young Pedro II, they declined to do so. This problem, however, was only solved after Pedro's majority.

As said before, Amélie and Pedro II still exchanged letters and even indirectly she had a role in his life. Regarding her daughter, Maria Amélia, she was also very devoted to, tutoring herself as she was tutored by her own mother. The princess was even betrothed to the archduke of Austria, Maximilian, but she soon started to show symptons of tuberculosis. Amélie tried a change of airs to help her daughter's health improve, but no change was seen and before her 20's, Maria Amélia of Bragança was no longer breathing.

The death of her daughter affected the empresss dowager and duchess of Bragança so much that she visited Maria Amélia's tomb every year on the anniversary of her death, and financed the construction of a still-extant hospital in Funchal named "Princesa Dona Maria Amélia"".

With time, Amélie's own health started to deterioriate and in her will, she made her sister, Queen of Sweden, her heiress, despite leaving many of her properties to her almost son-in-law the previously already mentioned archduke of Austria. So she settled in Lisbon and in 26 January 1873, she came to die. At the present days, she is found buried at the "crypt of the Monument to the Independence of Brazil in São Paulo." Amélie de Leuchtenberg was 60 years old.

Bibliography:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A9lie_of_Leuchtenberg

http://www.revistadehistoria.com.br/secao/artigos/a-outra-noiva-do-imperador

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2281566/Dom-Pedro-I-Brazils-emperor-exhumed.html

https://thenewroyaltyworldblog.wordpress.com/2016/01/26/amelie-of-leuchtenberg/

http://www.polyvore.com/am%C3%A9lie_leuchtenberg/set?.embedder=0&.src=share_html&.svc=twitter&id=62019337

Empress Wu Zetian: The Only Woman To Sit On The Chinese Throne (624-705)

                                           

                                           

Whenever we come to the idea of studying strong women who made the difference in the societies they lived, it is not unusual we deal with female royals who are mostly favoured by historiography. This, however, is neither a criticism or a fault on the part of historians. It's understood that a personal interest is mostly what motivates them in search of comprehend the role of a Queen, duchess, or any female whose royal status is entwined with historical events and the facility which sources may provide. And whilst historiography usually gives a great focus to British, French, Spanish or Portuguese ladies of noble birth, we here humbly attempt to do otherwise by telling the story of Wu Zetian of China.

That being said, who was Wu Zetian? What lies behind the female figure who stands as the only of her sex crowned as Empress of China? Who was she? And what were her deeds? On today's post, we attempt to enlight the person that was Wu Zetian, who definitely made history in a traditional line of Emperors of the Tang Dynasty.

Born Wu Zhao in Wenshui County, Shanxy Province with some sources claiming the birth date being February 17th, 624. She was raised within a wealthy family, with her father apparently being one of the Emperor Taizong's ministers, and was given a good education for a girl of her status, in which she "was taught to read, write, and to play music. Wu was an intelligent and ambitious girl who learned all she could about politics and how the government worked."

At the age of 13, she was summoned to the palace to become the Emperor's concubine, a title used to the monarch's lesser wives, due to her beauty and intelect she would later be praised for. But "it is said that her mother wept when they came to take her away, but Wu consoled her by saying that this was her destiny." In the next paragraph, we can have a better observation of how was her life at court:

"Wu began her life at court taking care of the royal laundry but one day dared to speak to the emperor when they were alone and talked about Chinese history. Taizong was surprised that his latest concubine could read and write and became fascinated by her beauty and wit in conversation. Taizong was so impressed by her intellectual abilities, he took her out of the laundry and made her his secretary. In her new position, she was constantly involved in affairs of state at the highest level and must have performed her duties well because she became a favorite of Taizong."

However, with the death of Taizong around the year of 649, as she did not deliver him a son, she was sent to a Buddhist nunnery, a place reserved to the Emperor's widows. There, those who were once the concubines of the Emperor had to follow an ancient chinese custom which involved having their "heads shaved and (...) thrown into a convent." But, if in the past she captivated the then prince Li Zhi with her charms, when he became Emperor Gaozong, she would not be forgotten and, in fact, was summoned to court by Empress Wang, who sought to distract Gaozong from a concubine with whom she was disputing the attentions of her husband.

"Attaining that position first required Wu to engineer her escape from a nunnery after Taizong's death--the concubines (...) were immured in convents for the rest of their lives, since it would have been an insult to the dead ruler had any other man sullied them--and to return to the palace under Gaorzong's protection before entrancing the new emperor, removing empress Wang and the Pure Concubine, promoting members of her own family to positions of power, and eventually establishing herself as fully her husband's equal. By 666, the annals state, Wu was permitted to make offerings to the gods beside Gaozong and even to sit in audience with him--behind a screen, admittedly, but on a throne that was equal in elevation to his own."

"In time she became a favorite concubine of the new emperor, giving birth to the sons he wanted. As mother of the future emperor of China, she grew in power. She managed to eliminate (...) Empress Wang, by accusing her of kiling (...) newborn daughter."

Many historians believe that it was Wu who strangled her own daughter, in order to destitute Empress Wang of her title and so thus become Empress herself. Once she managed to do so, "many of the state affairs were up to her for final decision since Emperor Gaozong was weak-minded. In that period of time, Wu managed to remove a group of political enemies thus clearing away all the obstacles in her political career. Beginning in 660 when Emperor Gaozong caught an eye disease, Wu began to grasp all the real power in the guise of assisting the Emperor in dealing with state affairs"

Concerning the nature of Wu, there can be only speculations as, according to historians, most of sources praise her deeds whilst her enemies accuse her of plenty of murderers. However, even surrounded by so many controversials, it seems possible to say, based on the degree of her actions that leaded her to the Chinese throne, that she was indeed a very clever and ambitious woman who was wise enough to keep herself behind the curtains of power and laterwards, knew how to use it for herself and her family. Her mother, "Lady Yang had been created the Lady of Rong, and her older sister, now widowed, the Lady of Han. Her brothers Wu Yuanging and Wu Yuanshuang and cousins Wu Huaiyun, despite the poor relationships that they had with lady Yang, were promoted".

When Lady of Rong died, the Emperor, perhaps attracted to the beauty of the deceased Lady's daughter or moved by a compassionate feeling, wanted to keep her in the court and this may have displeased the Empress greatly for it was said she poisoned her niece, only to blame her brothers later. It is from such events that she is claimed by her enemies to have been a murderer, possibly a sorcerer and a merciless woman who would do anything to be where she is. Some historians agree with that image, which might explain why the only Empress of China has been so controversial throughtout the centuries.

However, it is wise to remember that "as a leader, Emperor Wu ruled beningly over 50 million people. Under Confucian philosophy, an emperor's primary job is to promote stability and care for his (or her) subjects, which Wu managed spectacularly. She promoted Buddhism during her reign, and without her support, it would probably never have become such a profound influence on Chinese culture. She avoided major wars, and expanded Chinese territory to stretch into present-day Xinjiang to promote trade along the Silk Road. She also introduced an updated form of the civil service exams that were merit-based-hypotheticallly, anyone could be an adviser to the emperor of they were driven and intelligent enough, and aspects of this system lasted well into the 20th century."

From concubine, to Empress consort, Empress dowager until she finally became Empress herself. The methods perhaps were a little too bloody, but which Emperor or King in those days were not possible to do the same thing? In the last paragraph, we saw how the ruler and the person she was were divided. She managed a realm and was the only woman for doing so. Some might think she was merely doing what any men would in her position, whilst others stick to the view she was a blood-thirsty women who had no scruples to rise. But who was she? Was the Empress a good ruler and yet a tyrannical to those who opposed her? Or was she only a woman who did what she could to survive?

To those questions, we have no answers, though. A most important question rises, nevertheless: if she was cold, brutal and bloody as ruler, and her figure laterwards is seen with suspicious and dislike for the next generations, why was her reign successful? If we take a look deep inside her reign, we will find there was little opposition: she took the crown from her sons, causing the exile of one, the deposition of other, but to keep it, how successful she was? An exerpt on the next paragraph will better explain of how successful her deeds were.

"Remembering her peasant roots, Wu reformed agricultural laws to lessen the tax burden on peasant farmers across China, instituted some of the world's first labor laws, streamlined the bloated military into a more efficient fighting force, and cut the fat in her own government by forcing any government administrator to complete a ridiculously-difficult civil service examination to prove they were smart enough to have the job. She kicked out useless politicians, brought in well-trained scholars, built irrigation systems to improve farming (...)"

The Empress was also reported to have enjoyed a few number of favourites, especially towards the end of her reign. She did not remarry, and one assumes she refused doing so not to share the crown she struggled to keep. So "in the early eight century, Wu fell ill, and shortly before her death in 705 political maneuvering and fighting amongst her rivals forced her to abdicate the throne to Li Xian, thus ending her Zhou dynasty and restoring the Tang. She died soon afterwards."

Bibliography:

http://totallyhistory.com/empress-wu-zetian/

http://www.headstuff.org/2014/08/wu-zetian-female-emperor-china/

http://chineseculture.about.com/od/historyofchina/fl/Wu-Zetian.htm

http://www.warriortours.com/intro/history/tang/wuzetian.htm

http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2014/09/badass-ladies-of-chinese-history-wu-zetian/

http://www.badassoftheweek.com/index.cgi?id=52787309381

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu_Zetian

http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/heroine6.html

http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-demonization-of-empress-wu-20743091/?no-ist

http://www.ancient.eu/Wu_Zetian/

https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/history/tang/emperor_wuzetian.htm

http://www.ducksters.com/history/china/empress_wu_zetian.php