Arthur Tudor (1486-1502) : The Lost Tudor Prince Of Wales

It is hardly contested that, amongst the kings that ruled in England, one of the most famous is Henry VIII. However, it comes to the acknowledge of few that he was the second son who was not prepared to receive the English crown. In fact, he owes much of his throne to the death of his older brother and presumptive heir, Arthur Tudor. And although there is little discussion about the life of this prince, mostly because of his early death, he was not the first British heir to die so young, but likely to be the one whose life would change the course of it's history, after all, many ask what would have been of England had he lived. What kind of King would have he become? Is it possible to especulate if the events that had left their impact in Henry VIII's reign such as English Reformation would have happened under Arthur's authority? Perhaps all we might get is a glimpse of Arthur's character, and what was shaping it before his premature death. But even doing so, we cannot play with certainties or make assumptions, so based on that, this post is only an attempt to enlight the life of a prince who has become merely a footnote to History.

In previous posts, where the Tudors are concerned, we have already discussed about Arthur's father, King Henry VII, his sister Margaret, and some of the wives of his brother such as Anne of Cleves and Anne Boleyn. There, we have explained that Henry Tudor, formerly known as the Earl of Richmond, entitled to it by his birth, conquered the English crown after the Battle of Bosworth, which occurred in 22 August 1485 by opposing Tudor and his Lancastrians forces to the Yorkist ones leaded by Richard III, previously the duke of Gloucester and the youngest son of Richard duke of York. In theory, by becoming King Henry VII, his ascension put to an end an English Civil War that lasted for almost 30 years known as the Cousin's Wars or the Wars of the Roses, and his marriage to Elizabeth of York, duchess of York and the heiress of the deceased King Edward IV upon the disappearance of the Princes in the Tower.

As soon as they were married in 1486, Elizabeth of York was pregnant and Henry Tudor was very certain their first child to be a son. And indeed he was proved to be correct. A boy was born in 20 September of that same year, a month before he was expected to, at Winchester, which was believed by Henry VII to have formerly been the legendary capital of Camelot. For this reason, his first born son received the name Arthur "anticipating his reign and dynasty would bring back the golden age of the legendary king."

Upon his birth, he was bestowed the duchy of Cornwall and the earldom of Snowdon, and a few days later he was baptised at Winchester Cathedral by the Bishop of Worcestor, John Alcock. His godparents were both Lancastrians and Yorkists, once Arthur's birth was seen as the physical embodiment of the union of two former enemy houses of the late Plantagenet Dynasty. Here we see John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford; Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby; William FitzAlan, 16th Earl of Arundel as his godfathers and Queen Elizabeth Woodville and Cecily of York as the prince's godmothers.

Three years later,

"On 29 November 1489, after being made a Knight of the Bath, Arthur was appointed Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester and was invested as such at the Palace of Westminster on 27 February 1490. As part of his investiture ceremony, he progressed down the River Thames in the royal barge and was met at Chelsea by the Lord Mayor of London, John Mathewe, and at Lambeth by Spanish ambassadors. On 8 May 1491, he was made a Knight of the Garter at Saint George's Chapel at Windsor Palace."

Also,

"Henry was worried about his son's household, or so a letter he wrote one summer to Sir Henry Vernon, it's comptroller, suggests. The King thanked Vernon that 'by your wise and poletike meanes his household is the better conducted and governed, which is greatly to your laude and praise', but he also urged him 'to dispose you to contynue and yeve your personal attendance there at such seasons as the counsail of our said son shal thinke necessarie and expedient', warning that 'elles we must of urgent necessite appointe oon of our hede officers to exercise your saide rowme, and calle you to serve us in his stede'. Henry had deliberately not placed a single nobleman in charge of Arthur's establishment as Edward [IV] had appointed his brother-in-law Earl Rivers as 'governor and ruler' of his son. Presumably he had wished to avoid the partisan use of the prince's power practised by the Woodvilles and the bloody outcome it had brought in 1483. The decision was also congruent with Henry's reluctance to entrust the rule of any region to a single magnate. But this left the seven-year-old prince nominally master in his own house, a house in which head to learn to command and reward his servants with only the guidance of Vernon and his other senior household officers."

The prince's household, established in order to fulfill the purpose of learning how to display the royal power, to understand the protocol that moved his father's court as well as being taught of what kingship is. As we can see below:

"The household was also where Arthur could practice the magnificence that displayed royal power. [..] Entertainers in his household helped him provide sophisticated hospitality- we know of his lutenist, organist and poet- and his fame was spread further abroad by his company of players, who toured the provinces regularly from 1494-5. His tapestry collection may have included a set with red, white and Tudor roses, the ihs monogram and the legendary arms of King Arthur, of which fragments survive at Winchester College. He learnt to give  magnificent gifts in the styles appreciated at his father's court, like the book of hours, printed at Paris on vellum and illuminated, he gave to Thomas Poyntz, a servant since his childhood."

We come to other names that are part of his household, such as Anthony Willoughby and Maurice St John, who was the favoured great-nephew of Lady Margaret Beaufort aside of other men of his generation such as Sir Gruffydd ap Thomas, son of Sir Rhys ap Thomas, who was his closest companion. Apparently, to men as Willoughby and St John, "he famously said on the morning after his wedding night 'Bring me a cup of ale for I have been this night in the midst of Spain."

Men who were out of the favour of the Tudor dynasty also served the prince of Wales, such as Robert Ratcliffe, son to John Ratcliffe Lord Fitzwalker, who was executed for plotting with Perkin Warbeck in 1495-6. He too was present amongst those who witnessed the Prince speaking the former sentence concerning consummating his marriage to the Princess of Wales and would later help to carry the "canopy over Arthur's corpse." In short, Arthur was not only surrounded by men favoured or not by the Tudors, but also by men who were greatly influenced by Renaissance, which will lead us to his education.

Following the establishment of the prince's household, the king was decided to educate his son and heir following the humanist ideals that Renaissance had been exporting to Europe in those days. It can be assumed that the transition to Modern Age began with the Tudors. We can attest that

"It was around this time that Arthur began his formal education under John Rede, a former headmaster of Winchester College. His education was subsequently taken over by Bernard André, a blind poet, and then by Thomas Linacre, formerly Henry VII's physician. Arthur's education covered grammar, poetry, rhetoric and ethics and focused on history. Arthur was a very skilled pupil and André wrote that the Prince of Wales had either memorised or read a selection of Homer, Virgil, Ovid, Terence, a good deal of Cicero and a wide span of historical works, including those of Thucydides, Caesar, Livy and Tacitus. Arthur was also a "superb archer", and had learned to dance "right pleasant and honourably" by 1501."

Although he preferred books in contrast to his brother, Henry, who would be a king known for the taste of dancing and great festivities, to say Arthur was not skilled in these same activities is not valid. He was, like his father and younger brother, fond of hunting and was, as said before, excellent archer besides being fond of horseback riding. That being said, Arthur's education was set to prepare him to be a humanist king as his father planned to. Most of the questions that surround him concentrate in asking:  what kind of ruler would Arthur have been? How different would Britain's history be if Henry VIII had been sent to the Church and Arthur had not died in 1502?

There can only be made assumptions to respond these questions, if they can be answered properly at all. According to "Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales: Life, Death and Commemoration",

"Arthur might not have tried to govern his whole realm too much like southern England, as Steven Ellis has argued Henry VIII did, with dire effects. In that measure at least did his preparation for kingship might have made him a different king not only from his father, who had spent too long in Brittany to know the realm he had to rule, but also from his brother, who had spent too long in the Thames Valley. In other ways his preparation for kingship seems to have designed to make him at once a model humanist prince and recognizably his father's successor."

Another aspect of Arthur's life that is very discussed is his personal life, in other words, his marriage to the princess of Wales, the Spanish Infanta, Catherine of Aragon. Born in 1485, she was the youngest child of Isabel de Castile and her consort, Ferdinand of Aragon. Together, they united the realms of Castile y León and Aragón under their marriage. Catherine, their daughter and rumoured to be their favourite, was as educated following humanist tradition dictated by Renaissance as her betrothed to be, Arthur, who was born a year later.

The negotiations that would lead to the marriage of an Infanta who came from a powerful united Spain to the prince of Wales, whose dynasty had only been established in England's throne, took years and a great deal of time before it actually happened. The Treaty of Medina del Campo was arranged in order to straighten the alliance of England and Spain through the marriage of their children. As we can observe Henry VII's policies in general, he would use marriage to keep peace instead of going to war, something he would be successful to.

We do not intend to go too deep over the Treaty of Medina del Campo and it's implications to Henry VII's government. Instead, we will focus in the marriage between the prince and his infanta. Catherine, whose Spanish name is Catalina, set sail from Spain after years exchanging letters with Arthur in latin, since both had no knowledge of each other's mother tongue. Despite the first awkward welcome from her father-in-law, who insisted to see the princess himself, whether she was sleeping or not, all parts seem to have got along well. Once introductions finally happened, it was supposedly said that Arthur wrote well of Catherine, admiring her beauty and, to his in-laws, promising to be a good husband to her. They were then married to St Paul's cathedral on 14 November 1501. "The prince and his bride were sent down to the borders of Wales to keep court at Ludlow, where, in less than five months, the bridegroom died on 2 April 1502."

Far from provoking a discussion whether their marriage was consummated or not, we come to discuss a more important matter: the sudden Arthur's death. The prince and heir of England who was often known as the Tudor rose for physicially emboding the houses of York and Lancaster, that being even seen at his household when the choice of men were to represent it well, died. Until our present days, there was this idea that Arthur Tudor was sickly and not as strong as his younger brother was. A lie that was wrongly perpetuated by a misunderstanding of a Victorian historian, as we can see that "in actual fact Arthur's health seems to have been perfectly normal up to the time when he succumbed to what was probably some form of plague."

And this:

"To the nineteenth-century historian James Gairdner, however, Henry's words appeared simply to express a concern about the general state of his son's health--and when put together with the fact that Arthur was to die soon afterwards, this seemed to make adequate sense. Thus it was that a 'weak and sickly' Prince appeared in Gairdner's article on Arthur in the hugely influential Dictionary of National Biography (volume I, first published in 1885) and the idea was authoritatively established."

The words of Henry VII which this paragraph refers to are nothing but the expression of the King's concern in sending Arthur and Catherine to settle in Ludlow. Would it be safe? Arthur was months younger than his wife and this was to be considered, although Catherine was seen as ready to give birth. This was a common concern of those days, although it was acceptable that from the age of 14 royal 'children' could consummate their marriage. But we know well that Henry decided to send the prince and the princess to Ludlow, so they could be taught how to rule court.

His death in 1502 was, pointless to reinforce, the disappointment of a nation, the break of hopes destined to that prince. If in his birth, so many poets aluded to the glorious moment of it, in his death, lamentations and sorrows followed. It was a great procession that followed, and it must be remembered that in Tudor days, the parents did not participate their children's funeral. We have a small account to share of the funeral of the prince, taken from the book "Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales: Life, Death and Commemoration."

"From here [Ludlow] the procession to Worcester began, accompanied, amongst others, by the bishops of Linconl and Salisbury, the abbot of Chester, and the chief mourner the Earl of Surrey (deputizing for the royal family). The funeral took place in Worcester Cathedral 'with weping and sore lamentation'. 

"The lord treasure of England, the earl of Surrey, was probably the chief managed of the funeral. [...] The prince's council no doubt played an important part in the local planning and co-ordination of the ceremonies. Two of it's members, Sir Richard Croft and Sir William Uvedale, respectively steward and comptroller of Arthur's household, rode ahead of the cortège from Bewdley to Worcester and made sure nobody passed through the city gate before it's arrival. [...]"

With Arthur's death, expectations about the rise of a second King Arthur and a legendary reign died too. But it must not be assumed that he was a very different prince, when he was a boy of his days. According to Steven Gunn, his rule would probably have differed little of his father, so is it safe to assume that many of the events that marked Henry VIII's reign could have been avoided? Perhaps. But Reformation was already in course long before Henry VIII himself decide to divorce his first wife, so this cannot be responded with certainty.

His memory was, like so many prince of Wales that had not reached the crown, been left aside to the praise of great monarchs that were not expected to be kings or queens. Again, it must be remembered he was not a sickly prince. Conditions in the 15/16th century England, or in medieval times as a whole, would hardly prevent an amount of diseases to spread. Arthur Tudor was healthy and could have been a great time if destiny permitted. Or maybe, as many Englishman could have thought, that was just not the God's will. 

Whether be the case, our prince of Wales, the king who never was, should not live in the shadow of his brother Henry VIII. 

Bibliography:
-Prince Arthur's Preparation for Kingship, Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales: Life, Death and Commemoration.Edited by Steven Gunn and Linda Monckton.

-Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales: Life, Death and Commemoration. Edited by Steven Gunn and Linda Monckton.

-https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur,_Prince_of_Wales

-http://www.luminarium.org/encyclopedia/arthurtudor.htm

-https://thefreelancehistorywriter.com/2013/04/01/arthur-tudor-prince-of-wales/

Emma of Normandy: A Saxon Queen, Mother of Kings (985-1052)

On today's post, we turn our eyes towards one of the Anglo-Saxons queens that is not often discussed where British consorts are concerned in general history. Her name was Emma and she came from a house that not only descended from the famous viking Rollo, whom we have previously discussed on this blog, but was also the ancestry of the British kings such as was the case of William the Conqueror. Emma of Normandy was also the first recorded Queen mother of history, and it was she the mother of the famous saint king, Edward the Confessor and the consort of another conqueror, Cnut the Great, whom we also have already written about.

Emma was born around the year of 985, the daughter of Richard the Fearless, duke of Normandy, and his second wife, Gunnora, whom some sources claim to be his former mistress. It is also briefly mentioned she had other siblings, being the eldest also named Richard and who would inherite the Norman duchy as Richard II. Other than that there is no informating regarding Emma's education and her life in Normandy, which might led us to assume that she had an education as young woman of her status had.

When she reached the age of 13, Emma was betrothed to the King of English, Aethelred II who was by his people known as "Unready" due to his accending to the throne. Apparently, his mother, the former queen, had Edmund, who was Athelred's father first born from his first marriage, killed in order to have Aethelred crowned. His weakness as ruler did not increase his reputation either and to worse matters, England's shores were under Vikings attack. Willing to prevent them, Aethelred is advised to remarry. He was previously married to Aelfgifu of York, by whom he had several children, the oldest being the infamous Edmund the Ironside.

As we can see below:

"King Aethelred of England married Emma in 1002. Vikings raids on England were often based in Normandy in the late 10th century, and this marriage was intended to unite against the Viking threat. Upon their marriage, Emma was given the Anglo-Saxon name of Aelfgifu, which was used for formal and official matters, and became Queen of England. She received properties of her own in Winchester, Rutland, Devonshire, Suffolk and Oxfordshire, as well as the city of Exeter.

 Also:

"King Aethelred met his young bride to be and escorted her to Canterbury, where they were married and she was consecrated Queen. The kingdom over which she was set to rule, was, once again, under heavy Viking attack. Following the victory of King Alfred the Great and the dominance of Wessex, the Vikings raids had abated but a resurgence of these raids was disrupting the life of the population. Instead of growing food they were growing armies and defenses, their settled existence was under threat."

As a result of the marriage, three children were born: Edward, who would later be known in history as the saint-king Edward the Confessor, Alfred the Aetheling and Goda, countess of Boulogne. But the match did not put an end to the Vikings' attack to England. Being a poorly advised king, Aethelred demanded to have the Danes established at East Anglia to be slaughtered in an event that was regarded as the St Brice day's Massacre, which occurred in 13 November 1002. Consequently, this decision of having all the Danes that had settled throughout England brought another wave of invasions, this time from Sweyn Forkbeard, king of Denmark.

"These [invasions] continued particularly after Aethelred made an ill advised decision to massacre all the Danes in his country. In revenge, the Danish King Sweyn Forkbeard and his son Cnut invaded England. In 1013, Aethelred and Emma were forced to flee to Normandy. However when Sven died the next year, the English nobles invited Aethelred back to England "as long as he ruled more justly than he had before. Two years later, in 1016, Aethelred was dead and his eldest son by his first wife, Edmund Ironside, battled with Cnut over the throne."

In the between of these turbulent events, Aethelred lost his heir, Athelstan, and Emma hoped to have their son, Edward, acknowledged as his heir instead with the support of Eadric Streona, ealdorman of Mercia and main adviser of Aethelred. However, the eldest of the surviving children by Aethelred's first marriage, Edmund Ironside, opposed fiercely to this idea and rose a rebellion against his father. Following the acknowledgement of Edmund as heir to the crown instead of 10 year old Edward, Cnut of Denmark, the second son of Sweyn Forkberd, invaded England. The next events, Emma was a mere viewer, since there was little she could do when Cnut and Edmund battled for England. Eventually,

"following a series of engagements with Edmund, Canute defeated him at Ashington, Essex. A treaty was drawn up, partitioning the country which would remain in force until the death of one of the participants to the treaty, at which time all lands would revert to the survivor. Edmund II died a month later in November of 1016 and Canute was proclaimed King of England."

The Anglo-Saxons Chronicles describe the event with more precision, mentioning that "before the calends of August the king gave an order to fetch him the widow of the other king, Ethelred, the daughter of Richard, to wife." As we have discussed in our post about Cnut the Great, by marrying the former king's consort was one of his ways to have himself as king recognized as the sovereign of all England. And this would prove to be a wise decision, since Emma's relationship with the Church would help to shape Cnut's image as a pious and good king to his subjects.

It appears the relationship between Cnut and Emma have developed to an affection one and soon she gave him two children: Harthacnut, future King of England, and Gunhilda, Holy Roman Empress.  As for the children of her former marriage, such as Alfred and Edward, they were left in Normandy, at her brother's court, where they were raised probably alongside the future William the Conqueror.

She appears also to have been more active as Cnut's consort rather than Aethelred's, often donating to church as it's patroness, befriending the clergy and witnessing charts with the king, who, is said, was seven years younger than her. Emma also

"developed a close relationship with Aelfsige of Peterborough, who advised her on many spiritual matters throughout her life. Her close relationship with clergy and the church strengthened her husband's claim to the throne as Christian king."

She was, as "writes Stafford, [...] 'the richest woman in England... and held extensive lands in the East Midlands and Wessex'. Emma's authority was not simply tied to landholdings-which fluctuated greatly from 1036 to 1043-she also wielded significant sway over the ecclesiastical offices of England."

What else is mentioned in the "Chronicles" about Emma is seen below:

"[...] there on the third day came the Lady Emma with her royal son Hardacnute; and they all with much majesty, and bliss, and songs of praise, carried the holy archbishop into Canterbury, and so brought him gloriously into the church, on the third day before the ideas of June. Afterwards, on the eight day, the seventeenth before the calends of July, Archbishop Ethelnoth, and Bishop Elfsy, and Bishop Britwine, and all they that were with them, lodged the holy corpse of Saint Elphege on the north side of the altar of Christ; to the praise of of God, and to the glory of the archbishop, and to the everlasting salvation of all those who there his holy body daily seek with earnest heart and all humility. May God Almighty have mercy on All Christian men through the holy intercession of Elphege."

However, after a brief period of peace, Cnut the Great, King of England, Denmark and parts of Sweden died in 1035. This would leave Emma in another complicated situation, as Cnut had already a son by his first wife, a noblewoman from an Anglo-Saxon House whom he 'dismissed' in order to marry Emma, and who soon claimed the English throne. His name was Harald Harefoot, and he'd reign as Cnut's heir instead of Harthacnut, in spite of Emma's attempt to protect her son's interests and be the regent of his behalf. She had also invited Alfred and Edward back to England, but this would have disastrous consequences. Alfred the Aetheling was blinded by the supporters of Harald Harefoot, dying in consequence of these tragic actions and Edward fleed back to Normandy without setting foot in English soil.

It was also said that "on approaching Southampton, the elder of these, Edward, found the town up in arms against him, unwilling to accept any son of the weak and hated Ethelred. Edward had little choice but to return to Normandy."

Whether was the case, Emma worked to have Harthacnut crowned as King of England upon the death of Harald and it was said that Harthacnut hated his paternal half-brother, inviting back to England his maternal half-brother Edward, whom was named his heir and was treated with much more kindness. What we know also of Emma during this period is that "to help promote the interests of her sons, Harthacnut and Edward (who became 'the Confessor'), she commissioned an exaggeratedly flattering biography of Cnut and herself around the time of Harthacnut's succession (1040)".

This 'flattering biography' of Emma and her second husband was apparently a manuscript named "The Encomium of Queen Emma", a form of propaganda that would also shape her rule as the first Queen mother documented in Britain's history, though it is rather unsure whether she was acknowledged as such in her lifetime. This document also suggests she was more powerful than we are led to believe, but to what extent we cannot be certain, except that it can be told that she was extremely rich by 1042, when Harthacnut died and was succeeded by Edward, the Confessor.

With him, she did not, at first, have good relations. The new king deprived his mother of her estates, apparently because he resented the treatment she gave him when he was a child, left in Normandy most of his lifetime. Eventually, he changed his mind and they reconciled, though Emma was no more the powerful Queen of her days, replaced by other's of King Edward's trust.

Unfortunately for us, we don't know anything else about her death, except she died in 1052. The legacy Emma left as Queen for a realm she adopted to herself, as many queens in her position did throughout the queenship of Middle Ages, was not only a close relationship with the church, but the most important was the house of Normandy that conquered all England, being succeeded by Henry II, the first Plantagenet in the 12th century.

Bibliography:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_of_Normandy

http://www.intriguing-history.com/emma-of-normandy/

https://thefreelancehistorywriter.com/2012/05/02/emma-of-normandy-queen-of-england-by-susan-abernethy/

http://www.historyofroyalwomen.com/emma-of-normandy/emma-normandy-twice-queen-england/

http://spartacus-educational.com/MEDemma.htm

http://haylingu3a.org.uk/emma-of-normandy/

http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/illmanus/other/011add000033241u00001000.html

http://omacl.org/Anglo/part3.html

http://omacl.org/Anglo/part4.html

http://www.englishmonarchs.co.uk/vikings_7.html

Louis XV, Le Bien Aimé: The King Of The French Twilight (1710-1774)

Whilst researching about this king whose generation separates a golden age of France to the decades of revolution that began with the fall of Bastille and culminated with the deaths of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, it came to our knowledge that what is most commented about him in general is the period regarding the ascension of mistresses as Madame de Pompadour and the effect she had upon him. Policies in general? Almost nothing was found in it's particularities, unfortunately. Nevertheless, with the material found, we were able to write about this figure that is ironically best remembered for his mistresses, as if his predecessors never had been seduced by the female power and beauty before.

So who was Louis XV as person and king? Did he leave a legacy for France? Questions are these that we hope to give some enlighten, as one definite answer is no answer at all where history is concerned.

We start today's post by firstly pointing out the obvious and the irony that comes with it. By the time Louis was born, his great-grandfather, the sun king, Louis XIV was still on the French throne for nearly 70 years. Because France was still tied to the Salic Law that forbade any woman to inherite it's throne, Louis XIV needed an heir and by then he had two. His oldest son with his consort the Spanish Marie Thérèse d'Autriche, was also named Louis and better know as Le Grand Dauphin. He, in turn, was eventually married to a princess of noble birth, the duchess of Bavaria Maria Anna Victoria and together they had three children, but one of which interests us alone, the second Dauphin, who was the Duke of Burgundy. Burgundy, who was named Louis as well, was the father of the king we intend to discuss here.

And when Louis was born in 15 February 1710, he was the second child of Maria Anna Victoria and the duke of Burgundy. However, here lies the irony: with the death of his older brother, Louis became the third in line after his grandfather and father, who were expected to succeed the French throne in their respective time following the death of Louis XIV. And yet, history wanted it to be the other way around. It was by disease, and we don't intend to go very deep on this particular matter, that Louis XIV saw le Grand Dauphin and his wife, as well as the second dauphin and his own consort's lives fade away. Which turns us to Louis, who was only five years old when he became Louis XV.

Because of his tender age, Louis XIV left a regency for his great-grandson in order to rule the kingdom on his behalf until he reached the age of 14, which was by then the majority to reign by himself, unlike in countries as England where majority to minor kings was usually accepted at the age of 18. Nonetheless, for this regency, Louis left two natural sons as part of it, his Princes of blood, though chiefed by his nephew, Philippe, the second duke of Orléans, who was the son and heir of his father Philippe, first duke of Orléans, with his second wife Élisabeth of Palatinate. This regency would follow the orders of Louis XIV, where he expected the orders to be voted by all those who were part of the council.

Yet, upon Louis XIV's death in 1715, naturally, things did not follow as he wished it would. Philippe II not only took command the regency alone, thus being the regent himself, but stripped off the titles of Louis XIV's natural sons, and moved court away from Versalles, leaving it abandoned for a while. As for Louis XV, what we next know is about his education, which was:

"(...) overseen by his Governor, the Maréchal de Villeroy, and his preceptor, Cardinal de Fleury, nurtured his interest in the natural sciences, botany, medicine, astronomy, geography and history. His tutor, the Duke of Orléans, who ruled the kingdom as Regent during the king's childhood, provided the young Louis XV with a pragmatic political education. From the age of ten he took part in cabinet meetings."

As the young king grew up, Orléans was concerned about the female influence that "gold-diggers" could set upon him, so apparently he gathered a few boys to make Louis's company instead and it's rumoured they were not only his friends but lovers. Whatever the case, they were soon dismissed. At the age of 11, Louis XV was betrothed to the infanta of Spain, who was only three, but the emergency of producing children after a period of illness the king has fallen to and his impatience in waiting his cousin to grow to an acceptable age to marry were factors to break the betrothal. Before his marriage to the impoverished polish princess Marie Leczinska, daughter of the dethroned and exiled Polish king Stanislaw Leczinsky, he moved court back to Versalles around 1720, and by then Louis was already reigning alone, despite consulting Philippe II and not replacing him from his position until his death three years later. It was then that his former preceptor, Cardinal de Fleury, was summoned to occupy the position previously under the charge of Philippe II.

In 1724, with Fleury on power, the old rivalries between Catholics and Protestants were relived, since this was the year that a declaration against the Protestants was approved, leading for a long while prosecution from the Catholics to the Protestants again, despite the brief periods of peace that happened when France was involved in foreign Wars, as such was the case when France was involved in Austria's War of Succession that involved many european countries, and in fear to have the French protestants supported by their enemies, a truce between the two parts was accorded. As we can see in the next paragraphs:

"(...) the 1724 Declaration was not really followed until 1726 when Fleury, Bishop of Fréjus, became Prime Minister. Fresh arrests and convictions were made. In 1730, soldiers took Bibles. Psalters and other religious books from the Protestants of Nimes, and they were burned in the public square."

Nevertheless, Louis's popularity remained high to his subjects and he earned the nickname "Le Bien Aimé" (English: The Well Loved), because:

"He took to the battlefield himself and seemed to take charge of the country's leadership. Louis XV chose to rule without having a first minister after the Fleury's death in 1743."

However,

"Louis didn't retain the affections of his people for long. The War of Austrian Succession proved costly for France. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which ended the war in 1748, did little to advance the country or to settle disputes with Britain over certain colonies."

After the decrease of Louis' popularities, he would try to improve it by settling a few reforms but before we speak of these, we must turn a few years back to his personal life. As it was briefly mentioned already, Louis dismissed the betrothal to the Spanish Infanta and was married instead to a Polish princess, Marie Leszcynska, at the age of 15 and she, a few years older than him, at 22. Though Marie was not described as beauty, she was neither ugly and held the king's affection for a while. She was gracious and most fond of arts and music. The Queen gave King Louis ten children, born between 1727 and 1737, of which only one was the Dauphin. Louis XV would send his princesses, known as mésdames, to be raised at the nunnery, and to his heir he'd have a separate and comissioned chambers for him alone.

"As children they lived in the Princes' Wing, now known as the South Wing. At the age of six the Dauphin moved to the main wing of the Palace, where a suite of apartments was set aside for the heir to the throne on the ground floor. For the education of his daughtrs, Louis XV chose the Abbey of Fontevraud. When they reached adulthood they returned to Versailles, with the exception of the eldest, who married her cousin in 1739, the Infante of Spain, later the Duke of Parma."

However, Queen Marie's apparently frigid sexuality frustated Louis and he sought attention elsewhere, hence his mistresses. The first of them was one of the Nesle sisters, known as Madame de Chateauroux, who was said to have been the prettiest of the girls. But...

"(...) like her sisters, she was a self-centered golddigger. She demanded a grand house in Paris, jewels and a monthly income. Any children that might be born  were to be legitimized. Louis XV, deeply in love, accepted all her demands. Although Madame de Chateauroux used and abused the king, she was probably the great passion of his life."

Apparently, the next in line was Madame de Pompadour, whose real name was Jeanne-Antoinette de Poisson. She was not an aristocrat like her predecessors, but was more respectful to the king and seemed to have enjoyed a genuine loving relationship with him, no wonder being his favourite and long-time mistress. Here it is important to remember that Madame de Pompadour played an important political part in Louis XV's life as well. The reforms we have mentioned a few paragraphs above were partly influenced by her. In the next quotes, we can see better how far extended Madame de Pompadour's influence, and it must be noted that her "low born"'s origin were seen with suspicious and, naturally, seen with disdain by the court, who did not tolerate such a thing.

"The parti philosophique was supported by the Marquise de Pompadour, who acted as a sort of minister without portfolio from the time she became royal mistress in 1745 until her death in 1764. The Marquise was in favour of reforms. Supported by her clan of financiers (Pâris-Duverney, Montmartel, etc) she obtained from the king the appointment of mininsters (such as the foreign minister François Joachim de Pierre de Pernis in 1757) as well as their dismissal (such as Philippe Orry in 1745 and the Navy secretary Maurepas in 1749)."

However, "(...) these efforts were too little too late. Louis XV himself lacked the leadership skills and drive necessary to help push through changes." If he began his reign as "le bien aimé", by the last decades of his reign, he:

"(...) was abhorred by many due to his stubborn personality and detrimental political actions, including damaging France's foreign relations and continuously overspending, which exacerbated the country's financial problems."

Outside the political atmosphere, however, Louis XV exerced his influence in other fields of study. For example, he "advocated the creation of departments in physics (1769) and mechanics (1773) at the Collège de France.". He developed eclectic tastes, and it was thanks to this interest that Versailles had the first experiment with electricity:

"In 1746, at Versailles, Abbé Nollet performed a Leyden jar experiment for the King, successfully accumulating an electric charge."

Another observation of his reign in general can be perceptible in the next paragraph:

"He had read many times the instructions of Louis XIV: "Listen to the people, seek advice from your Council, but decide alone." His political correspondence reveals his deep knowledge of public affairs as well as the soundness of his judgement. Most government work was conducted in committees of ministers that met without the king. The king reviewed policy only in the Counseil d'en haunt, the High Council, which was composed of the king, the Dauphin, the chancellor, the fnance mininster, and the foreign minister."

Also:

"This breach in the privileged status of the aristocracy and the clergy, normally exempt from taxes, was a first in French history, although it had already been advocated by men such as Vauban under Louis XIV. However, the new tax was received with violent protest from the privileged classes sitting in the estates of the few provinces that still retained the right to decide over taxation (most provinces had long lost their provincial estates and the right to decide over taxation). The new tax was also opposed by the clergy and by the parlements. Pressed and eventually won over by his entourage at court, the king gave in and exempted the clergy from the twentieth in 1751."

"As a result, (...) the Parlement, which was made up of privileged aristocrats and ennobled commoners, proclaimed itself the "natural defender of the fundamental laws of the kingdom" against the arbitrariness of the monarchy."

Coming to the end of this post, we can only make some assumptions surrounding Louis' character. He was no lazy man where kingship was concerned, despite his preferrances in leaving the duties on the hands of those he trusted. At the same time, he was not weak. Could he prevent the French Revolution? Perhaps he could if his regent had not given, indirectly, permission for the French Parliament in doing so when he took the regency for himself. Or perhaps he could not, as there were many events that lead to this symbolic event in european's history.

He did hold, apparently, a strong hand to politic matters more than his grandson did and this considering both were not expected to inherite the throne. A twilight Louis XV he was, compared to what had come to his grandson's reign, and yet he did leave his legacy by bringing efforts to modernize France with electricity and estimulating education in universities. But there are few sources that try to enlight the figure he was, or his importance to France. He was not a weak king, though manipulative in some ways, but neither was too strong. An average king? Difficult it is to say. We conclude with more questions rather than answers, but hopefully this in the future changes and we might find something that leads us at what sort of king was Louis XV, overshadowed by the glory of Louis XIV and the fall of Louis XVI.

Louis XV died on 10 May 1774, in Versailles, comforted by his last mistress, Jeanne du Bérry, comtesse du Berry.

 Bibliography:

http://www.medadvocates.org/celebrati/february/feb_15a.htm
http://www.museeprotestant.org/en/notice/the-church-under-louis-xv-1724-to-1760/
http://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/history/louis-xv#a-keen-interest-in-science

Zoe Porphyrogenita: A Feisty Byzantine Empress (978-1050)

To close our little tribute to the Byzantine empresses, we speak of Zoe Porphyrogenita who, unlike the predecessors we have spoken to, came of high born origins (hence why her surname is Porphyrogenita, which meant 'born into the purple', a colour that for a long time has been associated to royalty in general) and was politically and culturally cunning for her days. Yet, it's sad to attest that few were the proper websites that were dedicated to her, but one hopes this should not prevent those who are intrigued to search further about our historical character.

Born Zoe Porphyrogenita, she was the second daughter of Constantine VIII and Helena of Alypious. She had an older sister, Eudocia, and one younger, Theodora. Eudocia was unfit to rule due to her appearance being disfigured by small pox, and it's known that if the heir of the imperial crown has some physical disease or incapacity, they are thus unfit to rule. Zoe would have to share the throne with her younger sister, Theodora.

Not much is known of Zoe's childhood and youth, since she remained in obscurity once her uncle, Basil II, feared the loss of the Macedonian Dynasty if his nieces were married. Still, suitors sought the hands of the imperial princesses, though it was Zoe's that Basil II agreed to give to the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III in 996 once she captured the attention of the Emperor's ambassy, Arnulf, who thought Zoe quite the beauty. 

As a result, "in January 1002, she accompanied Arnulf back to Italy, only to discover when the ship reached Bari that Otto III had died, forcing her to return home. Another opportunity arose in 1028, when an embassy from the Holy Roman Empire arrived in Constantinople with a proposal for an imperial marriage. Constantine VIII and the fifty-year-old Zoe rejected the idea out of hand when it was revealed that the intended groom Henry, the son of Conrad II, was only ten years old."

It was not until her uncle had died that Zoe was able to choose her own husband. Until that moment, she was forced to be at the company of her youngest sister, Theodora, whom she despised and had jealousy feelings because "she had never forgiven Theodora for being their father's first choice to marry Romanos." He, who would eventually be her husband and co-emperor as Romanos III Agyros, was the urban prefect of Constantinople, and third distant cousin of the Empress. 

In order to have the power for herself, unwilling as she was to share with her sister, Zoe manipulated Romanos by preventing him to marry Theodora, by placing one of his men to watch her and later, by accusing her sister "of  plotting to usurp the throne,first with Presian of Bulgaria, followed by Constantine Diogenes, the Archon of Sirmium." Consequently, Zoe had her own youngest sister locked in a monastery and forced her to take her vows. 

Even though she was married and crowned next to Romanos, the Empress became obsessed in keeping the dynasty of which she was a member to and attempted the many medieval ways possible to carry an heir, such as potions, amulets and magic charms. But neither of the said options could give her what she wanted. Romanos, then, attempted to control the Empress further by limiting her activities, though he tolerated her extra marital affairs. However, 

"On April 11, 1034, Romanos III was found dead in his bath, and there was speculation that Zoe and Michael had conspired to have him poisoned, then strangled or drowned. Zoe married Michael later that same day and he reigned as Michael IV until his death in 1041."

Interesting is to observe that, even though she had her first marriage at an advanced age for that time, she remarried in a short time. According to her contemporary chronicles, this beauty and youth admired by others were the result of her concern to her vanity, that is, to remain young and beautiful. As we see next:

"The eye-witness chronicles of the era describe her as blonde, with bright white skin, lack of wrinkles, and a very young girl appearance, preserving her beauty even into her 60s. All the historical sources agree that her main occupation was the manufacture of cosmetic essences, and for this purpose, she had installed a laboratory (myrepseion) in her private quarters, where she prepared various drugs and perfumes, spending much of her time for these activities"

That way, she was far more lively even in ther fifties than probably when she was younger, but it must taken in consideration that her parents and uncle no longer were there to refrain her free spirit. As for marrying one of her lovers, Zoe thought, as probably many women would regardless the century, that he was the one. That Michael would be more devoted to her, more than her previous husband. Zoe was to be proven wrong, for:

"Michael IV was  concerned about Zoe turning on him the way she had turned on Romanos, so he excluded Zoe from politics by placing all power in the hands of his brother John the Eunuch. Zoe was confined again to the palace gynaeceum and kept under strict surveillance, while Michael's visits grew more and more infrequent. Nevertheless, the disgruntled empress conspired in vain against John in 1037 or 1038."

Although we have no informations of how were the politics under the reign of Zoe, it can be presumed, perhaps, they were partly the reason of her popularity, for when Michael V had banished her after the death of Zoe's hand and continued to imput such a harsh treatment, a popular and violent riot rose that almost took him life. To attend the popular demand of bringing the Empress back, she did so, but this time she was not meant to rule solely. Instead, Zoe was forced to reign with the sister she hated the most: Theodora.

"A delegation headed by the Patrician Constantine Cabasilas went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress alongside her sister. At an assembly at Hagia Sophia, the people escorted a furious Theodora from Petrion and proclaimed her empress along Zoe. After crowning Theodora, the mob stormed the palace, forcing Michael V to escape to a monastery."

But the sibling rivalry would remain still. Several were the attempts Zoe tried to overshadow the policies by reigning solely, but she was prevented each time of doing so. One of these attempts, however, included a third husband and this was the limit the Orthodox Church permitted for the sovereigns to remarry. Constantine IX then was Zoe's third husband, but he would not give in his long term mistress in order to marry the empress, a deal that was oddly taken with no complaints from Zoe. 

During his reign, she permitted Constantine to rule almost as if he was sole emperor, once she gave him powers to do so. But, behind all the schemes, it was Theodora who reigned effectively. However, that was not how it was seen before the public, who, once again, protested in the strees against the poor treatment Constantine IX was imputing the sisters. Their presences were required and both Zoe and Theodora showed before the people to assure them there had been no attempt of murdering Zoe and that all rested well.

Unfortunately, there is no further information of the last days of Zoe Porphyrogenita, a woman that was, to certain extent, ahead of her days, living against the general medieval expectation concerning how a consort should act and behave. What is known is that she did not stop her activities of perfume and cosmetics, and that she died around the year of 1050, childless.

Bibliography:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zo%C3%AB_Porphyrogenita

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1473-2165.2012.00629.x/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+will+be+unavailable+on+Saturday+25th+March+from+07%3A00+GMT+%2F+03%3A00+EDT+%2F+15%3A00+SGT+for+4+hours+for+essential+maintenance.++Apologies+for+the+inconvenience.

Theodora of the Byzantines: From the Brothels to the Imperial Crown (500-548)

If in our last post we have discussed about the religious and political events that marked the life of Irene of Athens, today we will turn our eyes another remarkable Byzantine Empress, Theodora. Whilst we have observed that in the next centuries a marriage between a royal and a commoner has caused great scandal, making history in most cases, when we look at the background to some of these empresses, it is rather intriguing to see they were commoners with difficult lives who managed to get to the highest position of the society they were part of.

Theodora is no exception to these cases. As the empress consort of the Byzantine Emperor, she actively promoted laws that helped women and instigated the cult to Monophysitism, besides helping to strenghten the empire authority which was already marked by corruption. In days where society was made by men and to men, a woman in power as Theodora was usually seen with suspicious and fear. Specifically, because she was a prostitute in her origins, men as Procopius would describe her in not the best terms. So who was this Empress as ruler, wife and woman? It's what we will see next.

What is known about Theodora's early life is that her father was a bear-keeper of a hippodrome in Constantinople and her mother was likely an actress before that. She was probably born around the year 500 and had two sisters, a younger whose is unknown, and another, the eldest being named Camito, whose talent as singer made her famous. Also, when she was five:

"her father died (...) and her mother married another animal-keepr. When he failed to land her dead husband's job, she rehearsed her three little girls in arm movements and the silent gestures of supplication that would have been recognized by theatre audiences of the time. Then, she dressed them up and took them to the hippodrome--a vast complex, housing a capacity crowd of 30, 000 men--to formally request a job for their new stepfather. The wish was granted and Theodora went to become an actress, dancer, mime artist, comedian."

This profession which she performed in stages, however, eventually led most of the actresses to prostitution. Around the age of 14, Theodora already had given birth to a child, whose information we have none of it, but we presume that, like her sister Comito who was mistress to many men, "both had several abortions." Four years later, she would quit being actress as she was mistress to Hecebolus, governor of what today is known as Libya.

"When they broke up, not long afterwards, she joined an ascetic community in the desert near Alexandria, experiencing a religious conversion to a branch of early Christianity, Monophysitism, that was then under attack by the Roman state. The division between those who believed, with the state, that Christ was both fully human and fully divine in one, and those who, as Theodora did, believed His divinity was the prime force, raged on throughout Theodora's life."

She would remain a devout to Monophysitism for all her life, supporting this cult even when she became empress. And by the time she converted and gave up the life she was having until then, it's when she was acquainted to Justinian. He, who was born Flavius Peterus Sabbatius, was a farmer adopted by his uncle, the Emperor Justin I, once he was childless. Justinian was the heir of the Roman Emperor and took part of his council. History tells that he:

"Justinian was a farmer's son from present-day Serbia who travelled to Constantinople at the age of 11 to work for his uncle Justin, and help in his rise to power and eventual elevation to the throne. Justinian had a strong legal mind (his codifying of Roman law remains a part of legal training today), and had one law changed to raise Theodora's status, and another created to allow her to marry, something that former actresses could not legally do at the time. They married against the wishes of Justinian's aunt, the empress Euphemia, herself an ex-slave and concubine, who saw her own origins echoed a little too obviously in Theodora's. When Justin died and Justinian became emperor in 527, "Theodora-from-the-Brothel" was empress of Rome."

One of the most formidable episodes during the reign of Justinian happened when two political rivais, the Blues and the Greens, started a riot that, at first, the emperor could not resolve and had seen no other solution but to flee away. There's a speech where Theodora encourages him to stay, underlining "the significance of someone who died as a ruler instead of living as an exile or in hiding, reportedly saying 'royal purple is the noblest shroud'."

Impressive as she was, though criticized for the harsh way Justinian responded successfully to the riots, Theodora was respected by her husband not only for her beauty but for her wit. They often shared similar views concerning politics, diverging, perhaps, only in religious matters. Even there, Justinian was only tolerant to the Monophysitism because of his consort's belief. It's said that she was called his "partner in my deliberations". Theodora held court, had "her own official entourage and her own imperial seal."

Her involvement in politics was very important to advocate on behalf of the women's rights. It is thankful to her actions that forced prostitution was forbidden, being "known  for buying girls who had been sold into prostitution, freeing them, and providing for their future." Brothels were closed, and those who earned money with prostitution were repelled. A convent named Metanoia (Repentance) was created for ex-prostitutes.

"She also expanded the rights of women in divorce and property ownership, instituted the death penalty for rape, forbade exposure of unwanted infants, gave mothers some guardianship rights over their children, and forbade the killing of a wife who committed adultery. Procopius wrote that she was naturally inclined to assist women in misfortune. After Theodora's death, "little effective legislation was passed by Justinian"."

"As empress, she worked on the paper On Pimps, an attempt to stop pimps making their money from prostitutes. Well aware of the impossibility of marriage and a safe life for such women, she set up a house where they could live in peace. Theodora worked for women's marriage and dowry rights, anti-rape legislation, and was supportive of the many young girls who were sold into sexual slavery for the price of a pair of sandals. Her laws banished brothel-keepers from Constantinople and from all the major cities of the empire."

As a woman in a male world, Theodora left her marks though those are hardly being spoken in most gender discussions. Her personality is seen as commanding, persuasive, strong willed and opinionated. To men as Procopius, already mentioned before as the historian of the empire who described Theodora's supposedly sexual escapes and attempted to difame her name and sex, whose belief tended to see women below to men in social ranks, this was a natural absurd.

"[He] (...) greatly disapproved of Theodora's personality and background- she was smart and ruthless, and in her early life a prostitute and actress- blaming her for political and financial upheaval. Foss describes her as "less than saintly". Procopius's notorious account of Theodora in his 'Secret History' shows extreme dislike for her character; he, and Byzantine society in general, evaluated her former occupations as very near the bottom of the 'hierarchy of the arts'. Procopius writes that Theodora was secretive and unfaithful, yet this characterization can be attributed mostly to his own personal bias against her."

Another historian, John Malalas (c.490-c.570),

"only mentions Theodora three times: once as "the pious Theodora" who stopped brothel-keepers from enlisting unwilling young girls as prostitutes: second, to relate that while on a trip to Pythion, she was found "giving generously to the churches": and lastly to report her death. Although Malalas does not describe Theodora sexually, he does not shy away from graphic sexual descriptions of others whom he accuses "of living immorally in matters of the flesh"."

The controversy surrounding Theodora both as prostitute and later as Empress brings an interesting comparison to Mary Magdalene, due to her piety and penitent character she expressed especially after her conversion to Monophysitism. Yet, it must not be forgotten she too was a woman of her days, specially when rivalries with the former empress, her husband's aunt, is mentioned. With her flaws or not, Theodora was a royal of great importance and her death, at the age of 48, left the empire mourning her free-spirit.

Bibliography:

https://www.thoughtco.com/empress-theodora-facts-3529665

http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/people/rulers/justinian-i-and-theodora-i.html

https://www.mcgill.ca/classics/files/classics/2004-09.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodora_(6th_century)

https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/jun/10/theodora-empress-from-the-brothel

http://www.ancient.eu/article/603/

http://fascinatinghistory.blogspot.com.br/2005/05/theodora-ad-500-548-whore-who-became_01.html

Irene of Athens:The Ruthless Byzantine East Roman Empress (752-803)

In order to celebrate the Internation Women's Day, this week we will bring to the discussion some of the stories concerning royal women whose controversial figures were in the centre of studies and discussion for some long time. Also, to open the posts of this year, certainly later than planned, we begin with the Byzantine Empress Irene of Athens and how important she was to the Orthodox Eastern Church. 

Born in Athens of a Greek noble family, between the years of 750 and 755, little is known regarding Irene Sarantapechaina's life before ascending to the Byzantine throne. In some bibliographies here consulted, it's said that she was orphan under the charge of an uncle. What can be said with some degree of certainty is that around the year of 769 she was brought to the Constantinople court of Constantine V where she was soon married off to his heir, Leo IV. What can be said regarding Irene is what she's mostly famous for: being the responsible for the veneration of icons. As we can see next:

"Her main achievement during her reign was the settling of the Iconoclastic Controversy. Her predecessors had denounced and destroyed icons, were the living pictures of the saints, and Mary and Christ. The emperor had taken the Jewish and Muslim stance that these icons were idols. She was responsible for the eventual most important festival known as the Feast of Orthodoxy, which is still celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Church."

In between the issue concerning the restauration of the icons, Irene was also in the midst of a struggle for power with her son when he became Constantine VI at age nine, after Leo IV died. In spite of the rumours that he was poisoned under her commands, Irene became Empress-Regent on behalf of her son and soon worked to have an alliance with Charlemagne by arranging a betrothal between his daughter and Constantine, but this would be later called off against his wishes. Amidst the relationship mother and son that worsened with time, there were other complications to the hungry for power Irene. The late Emperor Leo IV had four half-brothers who, upon his death, soon sought his crown. Rebellions like these were stopped by Irene's forces repetedly until she had them into priesthood, so that way their claims would be invalid.

Following the "clash over veneration of icons, a patriarch, Tarasius, was appointed in 784, on condition that veneration of images be reestablished. To that end, a council was convened in 786, which ended up disbanded when it was disrupted by forces backed by Irene's son Constantine. Another meeting was assembled in Nicae in 787. The decision of the council was to end the banning of image veneration, while clarifying that the worship itself was to the Divine Being, not to the images."

This mended the relationship with Rome only briefly as they came to a mutual agreement to such religious matters.

Where politics were now concerned, opposition between Constantine and his mother grew, as she refused to give his son power, even the countless times he was manipulated by her to do as her will. After all, "in 788, Irene held a bride show to select a bride for her son. Of the thirteen possibilites, she selected Maria of Amnia", daughter of a wealthy Greek official. The match displeased Constantine VI, as he much preferred to have been married to the daughter of Charlemagne. However, not soon Maria gave him two daughters, he divorced her and married his mistress. Maria and the princesses were exiled and though one is said to have died at an early age, the other lived with Maria in a monastery, but, unlike her mother, had not taken the veil and married against Maria's wishes. 

The second marriage involved Constantine VI in a complicated relationship with the Church which helped Irene consolidate her position as Empress. No matter if Constantine had been already in prison and rescued back, he started to lose supporters. As it's perceptible in the next paragraph:

"(...) When Constantine grew up, Irene refused to hand over power to him, and instead put him in prison. Even when Constantine was rescued and put in power, in 792 he ended up letting his mother have the power again. (...)"

"In 797, a conspiracy led by Irene to regain power for herself succeded. Constantine tried to flee but was captured and returned to Constantinople, where, on the orders of Irene, he was blinded by his eyes being gouged out. That he died shortly after is assumed by some; in other accounts, he and Theodote retired to private life. During Theodote's life, their residence became a monastery. Theodote and Constantine had two sons; one was born in 796 and died in May of 797. The other was born after his father was deposed, and apparently died young."

Once her son was heireless and Constantine VI himself was removed from her path from one way or another, Irene of Athens became the first Empress of such a vast empire alone. But precisely because she was a female that the Pope was quick to respond it by investing Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor in a coronation in Rome, following the Frankish law that forbade any woman to reign solely, unless she was a consort. 

In spite of this, Irene was recognized within her territories as Byzantine Empress and often she "took the male title Basileus (Emperor) in preference to the usual offical status of Empress. Since she could not claim dynastic connections to the emperor she had deposed, she put her own portrait on both the obverse and reverse of her."

What happened next was of no good to Irene, though. Even with all the ruthless that had given her power to depose her son and reign herself alone, little by little she started losing supporters. Firstly, she was already unpopular between the army, which was a supporter of her late son the emperor, and the fact she was surrounded by eunuchs did not help her cause; the invasions of outsiders enemies, as arabs, were possibly a consequence of this as we may see following the paragraph below:

"Another victory by the Arabs reduced Irene's support among the government leaders. In 803, the officials in government rebelled against Irene. Technically, the throne was not hereditary, and the leaders of government had to elect the emperor. This time, she was replaced on the throne by Nikephoros, a finance minister."

Another cause of her fall was the approach between the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne to the Byzantine Empress, who, in turn, was considering to accept his proposal of marriage. If she had accepted it, this would be an union of two empires that had not been since the fall of the Roman Empire. 

"This situation was forced to a conclusion when Charlemagne proposed to marry Irene. The union would have brought East and West together for the first time in centuries. Irene was happy to accept, but no self-respecting Byzantine wanted to see a Frankish emperor on the throne, and so the ministers had to act now."

In response to these events that tensed these later years of Irene's reign, she was deposed and sent to exile. She would die the next year. Nowadays, Irene is best remembered as St Irene, whose day is still celebrated. Some sources claim her popularity in between the common folk, despite her intriguing manners to hold power and manage the whole iconoclasm issue. Whether be the case, controversial or not, Irene of Athens was not a typical medieval woman and she certainly held her ambitions too high to be the expected quiet christian lady of her days. Being so, for better or worse, she led the path to the next generation of sole queens and empresses the world would yet meet.

Bibliography:

http://web.clark.edu/afisher/HIST252/Women%20in%20the%20Byzantine%20Empire.pdf 

http://quatr.us/medieval/history/byzantine/irene.htm#topbar

https://www.thoughtco.com/alexius-comnenus-profile-1788347

http://www.rapiddiffusion.com/history/real-life-game-thrones-empress-irene-part-1/

http://www.rapiddiffusion.com/history/real-life-game-thrones-empress-irene-part-2/

http://biography.yourdictionary.com/irene-of-athens

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irene_of_Athens

Charles Martel: the Hammer of Francia. (686-741)

Whenever we turn our eyes to the Carolingean dynasty, it's most common that we have in mind Charlemagne, who, reasonably so, was responsible for most of his military conquests in High Middle Ages. Not very behind him, though, it was his grandfather, Charles Martel, who was also encharged for shaping the country we know as France, but in his days had another name: Francia. Like Charlemagne in a few generations later, Charles was also a religious man and his military skills were the cause why the islamics never conquered Francia, in the beginning of their retreat to Middle West.

But his life was hardly easy from the beginning. Charles Martel (Deustch: Karl Martel) was born in 686. His father was Pepin II of Herstal and possibly his mistress, sometimes acknowledged as his second wife, a noblewoman named Alpaida, in days where poligamy was tolerated, and which might explain that assuming Charles was illegitimate, perhaps is not the ideal. Regardless of his situation, he was the son of the Mayor of Austrasia, located in the eastern Frankish kingdom. The Mayor was a position of officers who encharged of managing the king's household before becoming guardian to minor kings. However, even when those reached majority, the Mayors still:

"(...) acted as chief officer of the government in his name. And as several of the young kings, even when they were old enough to rule, gave less attention to business than to pleasure, the mayors continued to do all the business, until at last they did everything that the king ought to have done. They made war, led armies in battle, raised money and spent it, and carried on the government as they pleased, without consulting the king."

 "(...) It meant the mayor of leader of the palace, eventually evolving into the role of king. At the time of Charles' birth, the Merovingian line of kings was failing. The Mayor overshadowed the king, reducing the actual king (in this case, Dagobert III) to little more than a figurehead. Pepin II had absolute power to include control of the treasury and the dispensation of offices."

Having been perceived how great being a Mayor was, it's almost no surprise to tell that this position would be disputed between Charles and the first wife of his father, on behalf of their eight-year-old son after Pepin's death. In fact, at his deathbed, he was convinced by Plectrude to give his position as Mayor transferred to their young son. Although part of the nobility of Austrasia had accept it, the noblemen of Neustria refused Theudoald as the new Mayor, especially since Plectrude would act as regent until his majority. As a result, a Civil War would implode and Charles Martel was imprisoned in Cologne within a year by Plectrued, who feared that his figure would rise uprisings all over Francia, which eventually came to happen, but he managed to escape from this imprisonment after obtaining the support of the Austrasian nobility. Consequently, Charles self proclaimed as Mayor of Francia.

This Civil War was marked by two important battles that would leave an important impression into the young Charles Martel. The first, as we known the Battle of Cologne, was the first and possibly only defeat of Charles in his whole life. This happened because he did not gather enough men to beat the army of Neustrians, otherwise known as western Franks, joined by their Germanic allies named Frisians. 

The second was the Battle of Amblève, in another Frankish region named Austrasia, a decisive battle where Charles used innovatives methods alongside his allies to defeat the Neustrians and Frisians rivals, led by King Chilperic II, mayor Ragenfrid and the Duke of Frisians, Radbod. As we can see in the next paragraph:

"Charles caught up with the retreating Neustrian Army near Malmedy at the Battle of Ableve and completely routed them. This battle would prove Martel innovative on the battlefield, something that would mark him in future conflicts."

"He appeared where his enemies least expected him, while they were marching triumphantly home and far outnumbered him. He also attacked when least expected, at midday, when armies of that era traditionally were resting. Finally, he attacked them how they least expected it, by feigning a retreat to draw his opponents into a trap. The feigned retreat, next to unknown in Western Europe at that time--it was a traditionally eastern tactic--required both extraordinary discipline on the part of the troops and exact timing on the part of their commander. Charles, in this battle, had begun demonstrating the military brilliance that would mark his rule."

As a result of the intern conflit, he "restored centralized government in Francia and began the series of military campaigns that reestablished the Franks as the undisputed masters of all Gaul." Little by little, Charles started an union over the Frankish reunion, especially by seizing lands or being acknowledged as the overlord of some otherwise independent duchies. It's also remarked that feudalism had its beginning under his command. It must be remembered as well that Charles was no king of the Franks just yet, despite rulling the region as if he was one. Once his internal matters were resolved, or the most important of these anyway, he was acknowledged as Mayor, Prince and Duke of Francia. 

As for his relationship with the Church, it was general good. He was, in fact, a :

"great patron of Saint Boniface and made the first attempt at reconciliation between the Papacy and the Franks. The Pope wished him to become the defender of the Holy See and offered him the Roman consulship. Martel refused the offer"

Where foreign policy is concerned, Christiniaty in general was concerned with the advance of the empire of the Islamics. Compared to Byzantinum's, or perhaps in response to it, the Islamics have not only enlarged in matters of territory, but their ambitions pushed it forward into Western Europe. After their conquest in the Iberian Peninsula, the Islamic turned their eyes to the Franks, believing this to be an easy conquest as it was a spread belief that the Frankish kings did absolutely nothing. But they would be proved wrong. 

"Charles' attention was called to foreign conflicts, and dealing with the Islamic advance (...) was a foremost concern. Arab and Berber islamic forces had conquered Spain (711), crossed the Pyrenees (720), seized a major dependency of the Visgoths (721-725), and after intermittent challenges, under Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, the Arab Governor of al-Andalus, advanced toward Gaul and on Tours, "the holy town of Gaul": in October 732, , the army of the Umayyad Caliphate led by Al Ghafiqi met Frankish and Burgundian forces under Charles in an area between the cities of Tours and Poitiers (...), leading to a decisive, historically important Frankish victory known as the Battle of Tours (...), ending the "last of the great Arab invasions of France", a military victory termed "brilliant" on the part of Charles."

Had this Battle of Tours, very important in the Frankish History because of the victory of Charles Martel, a different result, it's certain to say Christianity would be all converted to Arabs and fall into their domain. As we can understand it better below:

"The Battle of Tours (...) was fought on October 10, 732 between forces under the Frankish leader Charles Martel and a massive invading Islamic army led by Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman, near the city of Tours, France. During the battle, the Franks defeated the Islamic army and Emir Abd er Rahman was killed. This battle stopped northward advance of Islam from the Iberian peninsula, and is considered by most historians to be of macrohistorical importance, in that it haltd the Islamic conquests, and preserved Christianity as the controlling faith in Europe, during a period in which Islam was overruning the remains of the old Roman and Persian Empires."

There are estimatives that the Frankish army defending Gaul were between 15,000 and 75,000; whilst the Muslims had around 60,000 and 400,00 in cavalry, though these numbers can be lesser than it is thought. Whatever the certain number is, what is commonly believed by most accounts is that the entire Muslim army was present at the Battle. 

After the victory at the Battle of Tours was granted on the Franks' side, Charles turned against "fellow Christian realms, establishing Frankish control over Bavaria, Alemannia, and Frisia, and compelling some of the Saxon tribes to offer tribute."

In his personal life, there is little to be known, except that he was possibly married twice. The first to a noblewoman named Rotrude of Treves with whom he had five children before her death in 724: Hiltrude, Carloman, Landrade, Auda, and Pippin the Younger. After Rotrude's death, he was married to Swanhild, with whom he had a son Grifo. It's also said that he had some mistresses, named Ruodhaid, who produced four children: Bernard, Hieronymus, Remigius, and Ian.

In general words, we understand the political aspects of Charles Martel as Mayor, Prince and Duke of Franks as the emerging of a realm more unified and a monarchy more centralized, modelling the characteristics that would shape politics later better developed in the reigns of Hugh Capet, Philippe IV and Louis XII. "The responsibilities of the knights of court, and so in the development of the Frankish system of feudalism" were also observed throughout the period of Charles Martel as main governor of Francia, being its sovereign in all but name. Lastly,

"from 737 until his death in 741, Charles focused on the administration of his realm and expanding his influence. This included subduing Burgundy in 739. These years also saw Charles lay the groundwork for his heirs' sucession following his death. When he died on October 22, 741, his lands were divided between his sons Carloman and Pippin III. The latter would father the next Carolingian leader, Charlemagne. Charles' remains were interred at the Basilica of St Denis near Paris."

The strong administration that marked his reign would be followed by Pepin, who, at first, reigned together with his brother Carloman, but once he sought a religious life to live, becoming a monk, Pepin solely ruled as Pepin III. As the son that would succeeded him in turn, Pepin continued to spread his father's legacy in what France would later be.

Bibliography:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Martel

https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-i-ancient-civilizations-enlightenment-textbook/the-middle-ages-in-europe-9/the-carolingian-dynasty-45/charles-martel-and-pepin-the-short-974-17581/

http://study.com/academy/lesson/charles-martel-biography-battle-of-tours.html

http://www.heritage-history.com/index.php?c=academy&s=char-dir&f=martel

http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03629a.htm

http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/imperialism/notes/tours.html

http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/battleswarsto1000/p/tours.htm

https://themuslimissue.wordpress.com/2014/10/31/remembering-the-crusaders-charles-the-hammer-martel-the-hero-of-the-age/

http://www.authorama.com/famous-men-of-the-middle-ages-11.html